A Topical Approach To Life Span Development 7th Edition

A Topical Approach To Life Span Development 7th Editionjohn W Santr

A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development, 7th edition John W. Santrock PsychoSocial Development The Nature of Development Theories of Development Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Social motivations and desire to affiliate with others is central influence in development Emphasized importance of early and later experiences in life Theories of Development Theories of Development Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory Development is observable behavior that we learn through experience with the environment Emphasizes continuity in development Theories of Development Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Consequences of behavior produce changes in probability of behavior Rewards and punishments shape behavior Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Development shaped through observational learning Form cognitive representations of others’ behaviors May adopt behaviors, thoughts, and feelings accordingly Theories of Development Theories of Development Ecological theory Emphasizes environmental factors on development Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory Development reflects the influence of several environmental systems Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem Theories of Development Exploring Emotion Emotion Feeling, or affect, that occurs in a state or an interaction that is important to a person, especially to his/her well-being Positive emotions include enthusiasm, joy, and love Negative emotions include anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness Emotions influenced by biological foundations and a person’s experience Social relationships provide setting for development of emotions Cultural variations characterize emotional development Development of Emotion Reduced negative emotion in older adults may be associated with decreased physiological arousal of emotion Aging of the amygdala and autonomic nervous system Socioemotional selectivity theory Older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being Deliberately spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have rewarding relationships Motivation for knowledge-related goals decreases while motivation for emotion-related goals increases in middle and late childhood Temperament Temperament Individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding How quickly emotion is shown, how strong it is, how long it lasts, and how soon it fades away. Attachment and Love Social referencing Reading emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation A mother’s facial expression influences how an infant will explore an unfamiliar environment Attachment and Love Attachment Close emotional bond between two people Freud - infants attach to person/object that provides oral satisfaction Harlow - contact comfort is crucial element in developing attachment Erikson - trust vs. mistrust stage emphasizes the role of physical comfort Attachment and Love Strange Situation Observational measure of infant attachment in which the infant experiences a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with caregiver and an adult stranger in prescribed order Securely attached children Use caregiver as a secure base to explore environment Insecure avoidant children Show insecurity by avoiding the mother Insecure disorganized children Disorganized and disoriented Attachment and Love Attachment and Love Attachment and Love Fathers have the ability to care for infants as sensitively and responsively as mothers do Maternal interactions with infants center on child-care activities Feeding, changing diapers, bathing Paternal interactions more likely to include play Attachment and Love Attachment and Love Romantic partners fulfill some of the same needs for adults as parents do for their children Adults count on romantic partners to be a secure base to return to and obtain comfort and security in stressful times Young adults who were securely attached in romantic relationships were more likely to describe early relationships with parents as securely attached Attachment and Love Adult attachment styles: Secure attachment Positive view of relationships, easy to get close to others, not overly concerned with or stressed out about romantic relationships Avoidant attachment Hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships Once in a relationship, distance themselves from partners Anxious attachment Demand closeness, less trusting, more emotional, jealous, and possessive The Self Self All characteristics of a person Identity Who a person is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-understanding Personality Enduring personal characteristics of individuals The Self Selective optimization with compensation theory: Selection Older adults have reduced capacity and loss of functioning Reduction in performance in most life domains Optimization Maintain performance in some areas through continued practice and use of new technologies Compensation When life tasks require a level of capacity beyond current level Used in circumstances that impose high mental and physical demands Identity What is identity?

Career and work path Political beliefs Spiritual beliefs Relationship status Achievement/intellectual identity Cultural/ethnic identity Interests Personality Physical identity/body image Identity Erikson’s stage - identity vs. identity confusion Adolescents faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life Questions occur throughout life, but become especially important during adolescence Search for identity aided by psychosocial moratorium Society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibility Allows them to try on different identities Adolescents who do not successfully resolve identity crisis suffer from identity confusion Identity Identity statuses Crisis – a period of identity development during which individual explores alternatives Commitment – personal investment in identity 4 statuses: Identity diffusion Identity foreclosure Identity moratorium Identity achievement Identity Identity During early adolescence, youth primarily in identity statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium Parental support, established sense of industry, and self-reflective stance toward the future are important to identity formation Researchers have developed a consensus that key changes in identity most likely to take place in emerging adulthood, not adolescence Many young adults are identity diffused Further exploration during college years Identity Complex reasoning skills and experiences may stimulate individuals to reach higher level of integration of identity Identity may not remain stable throughout rest of the life “MAMA cycles” – changing from moratorium and achievement and back again Identity consolidation continues into early adulthood and possibly into early part of middle adulthood Individuals move from early to middle adulthood and become more concerned about their identity Identity Parents are important in adolescent identity development Poor communication and persistent conflict with friends linked to less positive identity development Family atmosphere promotes individuality and connectedness: Individuality – self-assertion and separateness Connectedness – mutuality and permeability Identity Capacity to explore identity linked to the quality of friendships and romantic relationships Adolescents grow up in cultural contexts emphasizing either individuality or collectivism, affecting their identity development Postpone identity exploration beyond adolescence and emerging adulthood Ethnic identity includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group Attitudes and feelings related to that membership Choice between two or more identifications – own ethnic group or dominant culture Bicultural identity – identifying in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with the dominant culture Adolescents increasingly consider the meaning of ethnic identity due to advanced cognitive skills, abstract thinking, and self-reflection They also have more ethnic-related experiences Personality Trait theories Personality consists of broad dispositions that produce characteristic responses The Big Five factors of personality: Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Related to health, intelligence, cognitive functioning, achievement, work, and relationships Personality Levinson views midlife as a crisis Middle adult is suspended between past and future, trying to cope with the gap to ensure life’s continuity Vaillant concludes that forties are a decade of reassessing and recording the truth about adolescent and adulthood years Only a minority of adults experience a midlife crisis Vaillant’s research found few midlife crises Emotional well-being does not decrease significantly Some psychological gains experienced Personality Middle-aged adults interpret, shape, alter, and give meaning to their lives Midlife crisis may be experienced in one context of life but not others Work vs. family In “¼ of cases of midlife crisis, it is triggered by life events such as job loss, financial problems, or illness Personality Contemporary life events approach How life events influence an individual’s development depends on the event, as well as mediating factors, the individual’s adaptation to the event, life-stage context, and sociohistorical context Drawbacks: Too much emphasis on change, not enough on stability Daily experience may be primary sources of stress, not major life events Personality Personality Generativity versus stagnation Generativity – adults’ desire to leave a legacy of themselves to the next generation Stagnation – an individual senses he/she has done nothing for the next generation Middle-aged adults are especially concerned about generativity Linked to positive social engagement in family life and community activities Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Peers Individuals of about the same age or maturity level Provide source of information and comparison about world outside of the family Receive feedback about abilities Peer influence can be positive or negative Rejection and neglect by peers Can undermine parent values and control Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Parents influence children’s peer relationships Basic lifestyle decisions of parents largely determine pool from which children select possible friends Choice of neighborhood, church, school, and their own friends Parent-child relationships influence children’s peer relations Children also learn other modes of relating through peer relationships Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Peer interaction is influenced by context Type of peer individual interacts with Acquaintance, crowd, clique, friend, romantic partner Situation or location where peers interact School, neighborhood, community center, religious setting, etc.

Children encounter different messages and opportunities to engage in adaptive or maladaptive behavior with peers Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Other factors that affect peer relations: Personality Emotionality Status/power of peer Around age 5, children prefer to spend time with same-sex playmates Preference increases in childhood Frequency of positive and negative peer interactions increase Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Social knowledge involved in ability to get along with peers: What goals to pursue in poorly defined or ambiguous situations How to initiate and maintain a social bond What scripts to follow to get other children to be their friends Emotions play strong role in determining whether peer relations are successful Moody and emotionally negative children are often rejected Emotionally positive children are often popular Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Peer statuses: Popular children Frequently nominated as best friend and rarely disliked by peers Average children Receive average number of both positive and negative nominations from peers Neglected children Infrequently nominated as best friend but not disliked by peers Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Peer statuses (continued): Rejected children Infrequently nominated as someone’s best friend and actively disliked by peers Controversial children Frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being disliked Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Peer statuses (continued): Rejected children often have serious adjustment problems and may be aggressive or shy Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Social contexts influence bullying 70-80% of victims and bullies are in same classroom Classmates often aware of and witness bullying Bully behavior can be used to gain higher peer status Bullying victims are more likely to experience depression and suicidal ideation Cyberbullying has increased concerns and risks Peers and Friendships in Childhood and Adolescence Friendships serve functions like companionship, social support, and intimacy. Characterized by self-disclosure and sharing of private thoughts, they develop mainly in adolescence. Friendships foster identity exploration and provide a safe space for trying out social roles. The development of friendships is influenced by personality, emotionality, social skills, and context, including school and neighborhood settings. Popular children tend to demonstrate social skills like giving positive reinforcement, listening patiently, expressing enthusiasm, and managing emotions, all contributing to peer acceptance. Rejected and neglected children often experience social difficulties, with aggressive or shy tendencies affecting peer relationships. Bullying dynamics show that bullies seek higher social status, while victims are vulnerable to depression and suicidal ideation, especially with cyberbullying on the rise. In adulthood, social disengagement theories suggested withdrawal is beneficial for older adults, but activity theory emphasizes ongoing social involvement correlates with well-being. Ageism persists as a social issue, marginalizing older adults, while the social convoy model underscores the importance of supportive personal networks for sustaining mental and physical health across the lifespan. Cultural influences shape development; individualistic societies prioritize personal achievement, whereas collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony and interconnectedness. In sum, understanding psychosocial development through Erikson’s stages offers insight into how loyalty to social groups impacts attitudes and behaviors, especially during adolescence and emerging adulthood, shaping identity, social relationships, and the sense of self across the lifespan.

Paper For Above instruction

Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory remains a foundational framework for understanding human development across the lifespan. Its focus on psychosocial conflicts and their resolutions offers valuable insights into how individuals form identities, develop social relationships, and navigate societal expectations. Specifically, the theory's emphasis on themes of trust, autonomy, identity, intimacy, and generativity corresponds closely with the influence of social group loyalty, which often guides behaviors and attitudes rooted in cultural, racial, or professional identities. This paper critically examines Erikson’s eight psychosocial stages in the context of strong social group loyalty, exploring how loyalty enhances or hinders psychosocial development.

Erikson's first stages—trust vs. mistrust and autonomy vs. shame and doubt—set the foundation for future development rooted in early attachment and caregiving experiences (Erikson, 1950). A strong sense of trust established in infancy generally facilitates open loyalty to social groups later in life, fostering a secure attachment to one’s community or cultural identity. Conversely, early experiences characterized by mistrust or neglect may lead individuals to develop insecurity or mistrust of societal institutions, which can influence loyalty to social groups either as a defensive mechanism or as a source of belonging (Bowlby, 1969). Understanding this early foundation is essential because group loyalty often stems from a fundamental need for safety and belonging developed during these formative stages.

The stages of identity vs. role confusion (adolescence) and intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood) explicitly address the formation of personal and social identity (Erikson, 1950). In adolescence, discovering one’s identity often involves selecting social groups aligned with personal and cultural values. Loyalty to these groups can reinforce identity, providing authentic sources of self-definition (Marcia, 1966). However, when peer or social group loyalty is excessive, it may inhibit exploration, leading to identity foreclosure, where individuals adopt group norms without personal reflection. These group loyalties become embedded in a person’s self-concept, affecting their capacity for intimate relationships where openness and individuality are important (Erikson, 1950).

Furthermore, in early adulthood, loyalty to social groups such as ethnic, professional, or social affiliations can facilitate intimacy. A secure attachment to a social group provides a platform for trusting romantic partners and friends, enabling genuine emotional closeness (Johnson et al., 2013). Conversely, rigid loyalty may generate conflict or exclusion, impeding broader social integration and leading to social isolation (Williams & Collins, 2001). The resolution of this stage influences whether an individual can balance attachment to their social group with openness to others, which is crucial for societal harmony.

During middle adulthood—represented in Erikson’s stage of generativity vs. stagnation—the role of social group loyalty extends to societal contribution and legacy building (Erikson, 1950). Strong loyalty can inspire adults to contribute significantly to their community, fostering generativity through mentoring, civic engagement, and cultural preservation. However, excessive identification with a particular social group may also lead to stagnation if it fosters intolerance or resistance to change. The balance here determines whether an individual experiences fulfillment through societal involvement or feelings of purposelessness (McAdams &Verduyn, 2004).

In late adulthood, Erikson’s stage of integrity vs. despair involves reflecting on one’s life and societal contributions. Loyalty to social groups, like cultural or religious communities, often provides a sense of coherence and life satisfaction (Erikson, 1950). Strong social bonds contribute to psychosocial well-being, counteracting loneliness and existential despair. Conversely, loss of social ties or prejudice based on age-related social groupings can foster feelings of alienation, underscoring the importance of maintained social loyalties for aging populations (Antonovsky, 1979).

Critical reflection on slides 24 and 32 reveals that social loyalty often acts as a double-edged sword. While it fosters community and identity, it can also promote exclusion and conflict if loyalty becomes rigid or intolerant. This highlights the necessity for balanced loyalty—appreciating one’s group while maintaining openness toward other identities and communities. A rigid social loyalty may reinforce stereotypes, prejudice, and intergroup hostility, undermining psychosocial health (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Therefore, healthy development involves integrating loyalty with flexibility, fostering intergroup understanding and social cohesion.

In conclusion, Erikson’s psychosocial theory provides a comprehensive lens for understanding the complex interplay between social loyalty and development. Loyalty to social groups can support the formation of a cohesive identity, promote intimacy, and foster societal engagement. However, excessive or inflexible loyalty may hinder personal growth, promote prejudice, and obstruct social harmony. Recognizing this nuanced influence emphasizes the importance of balancing group loyalty with openness and critical reflection, which is vital for fostering not only individual well-being but also social cohesion across generations.

References

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