Answer Any One Of The Following Essay Questions: 1. What Wer

Answer Any One Of The Following Essay Questions1 What Were The Major

Answer any one of the following essay questions. 1. What were the major ways in which Hafiz al-Assad and Saddam Husayn differed? 2. What have been the causes of the hostility between Iran and the United States? 3. What were the reasons for the rise of Sacred Terror? What are its major characteristics? Provide examples that illustrate these characteristics. 4. What were the reasons for the Arab Spring? Where did foreign intervention play an important in the outcomes? 5. What strategies and tactics has the United States relied on in the war against terrorism? 6. Explain the role of any three of the following in the Arab-Israeli conflict: the PLO, the Six-Day War, the First Intifada, the Oslo I Accord, or the Second Intifada.

Paper For Above instruction

The complex political landscapes of the Middle East have been shaped substantially by influential leaders, ideological conflicts, and regional upheavals. Among the prominent figures, Hafiz al-Assad and Saddam Hussein stand out due to their pivotal roles in Syrian and Iraqi politics, respectively. Their leadership styles, political strategies, and regional ambitions differed markedly, influencing their countries’ trajectories and regional stability.

Differences between Hafiz al-Assad and Saddam Hussein

Hafiz al-Assad, who ruled Syria from 1970 until his death in 2000, was known for his pragmatic approach to governance, emphasizing a Ba'athist ideology rooted in Arab socialism and secularism. Assad aimed to maintain stability within Syria through a centralized authoritarian regime, balancing various ethnic and sectarian groups to prevent internal divisions. His foreign policy was characterized by a pragmatic stance, often aligning with the Soviet Union during the Cold War while seeking to maintain good relations with neighboring Arab states and the West.

In contrast, Saddam Hussein's rise to power in Iraq was marked by a more aggressive and militarized approach. Hussein's rule, beginning in 1979 until his ousting in 2003, was characterized by brutal repression, extensive use of violence against opposition, and a focus on Iraqi nationalism. His ambitions extended beyond Iraq's borders, notably evidenced by the invasion of Iran in 1980 and Kuwait in 1990. Unlike Assad, Saddam fostered a personality cult centered around his authority, often resorting to militarism and suppression to consolidate power.

Furthermore, while Assad maintained a relatively pragmatic and cautious foreign policy, Saddam Hussein’s regime was more confrontational, frequently engaging in regional conflicts and seeking to project power through military strength. These differences influenced their respective countries' policies and their interactions with regional and global powers.

Causes of Hostility between Iran and the United States

The hostility between Iran and the United States has a multifaceted history rooted in ideological, political, and strategic conflicts. The 1953 CIA-led coup that ousted Iran's democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh marked a significant turning point, fostering mistrust toward Western interference. During the Shah's reign, Iran was a strategic ally of the U.S., but this relationship eroded with his fall during the Iranian Revolution of 1979, which replaced a pro-Western monarchy with an Islamic republic.

The 1979 Islamic Revolution profoundly reshaped Iran's internal politics, establishing a theocratic regime opposed to Western influence. The subsequent hostage crisis, where American diplomats were held in Tehran for over a year, further entrenched animosity. Additionally, Iran's support for militant groups like Hezbollah and its pursuit of nuclear technology have exacerbated tensions, as the U.S. perceives Iran as a destabilizing force in the region.

Strategic factors, such as Iran's desire to assert its regional influence and counterbalance American presence in the Middle East, continue to fuel hostility. Conversely, U.S. policies—including economic sanctions, military interventions, and efforts to contain Iran’s regional ambitions—have perpetuated an adversarial relationship. These historical grievances and strategic dynamics create a persistent state of hostility between Iran and the United States.

Rise of Sacred Terror and Its Characteristics

The phenomenon of Sacred Terror refers to acts of violence committed by extremist groups motivated by religious ideologies that perceive their violent actions as sacred duties. This form of terrorism has gained prominence with groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS, which justify attacks as religious obligations meant to defend or establish a divine order.

One of the major reasons for the rise of Sacred Terror is the perception among extremist groups that they are engaging in a holy war against perceived enemies of their faith, often framing their violence as a spiritual obligation. This ideological framing distinguishes Sacred Terror from secular or political violence and provides a moral justification that resonates with adherents and radicalized followers.

Characteristics of Sacred Terror include targeted attacks on civilians, destruction of religious and cultural symbols, and a narrative that positions violence as a divine duty. For example, the September 11 attacks by Al-Qaeda targeted civilians in the United States, justified by their claim to defend Islam from Western imperialism. Similarly, ISIS’s destruction of ancient artifacts and targeted violence against religious minorities exemplify this characterization of Sacred Terror.

The justification of violence through religious narratives, the use of propaganda to recruit followers, and the apocalyptic worldview are additional traits that define Sacred Terrorism. These characteristics make it distinct from other forms of political violence, as it intertwines religious conviction with violent acts aimed at initiating a divine order.

Reasons for the Arab Spring and Foreign Intervention Outcomes

The Arab Spring was a series of popular uprisings across North Africa and the Middle East that began in late 2010, driven by grievances over authoritarian rule, economic hardship, corruption, and lack of political freedoms. Socioeconomic disparities, unemployment, and widespread dissatisfaction with regimes like those in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Syria fueled mass protests demanding political reform and democratic governance.

The role of social media platforms in mobilizing and coordinating protests was instrumental in facilitating rapid dissemination of information and rallying citizens. Notable events include the fall of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in Tunisia and President Hosni Mubarak in Egypt, both symbolizing the demand for democratic change.

Foreign intervention has significantly influenced the outcomes of these uprisings. In Libya, NATO-led military intervention aimed to protect civilians from Gaddafi's forces, ultimately leading to regime change but resulting in ongoing instability. In Syria, foreign involvement, particularly from Russia and Iran supporting Bashar al-Assad and Western countries backing opposition groups, has prolonged the conflict. The intervention often aims to protect national interests, contain regional instability, or support allied regimes, but can either facilitate a transition to democracy or deepen chaos and violence.

Overall, the Arab Spring revealed the power of grassroots movements but also highlighted the complexities of foreign involvement, which often exacerbated existing conflicts or hindered democratic transitions.

US Strategies and Tactics in the War against Terrorism

The United States has employed a multifaceted approach in its war against terrorism, involving military interventions, intelligence operations, homeland security measures, and diplomatic efforts. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, the U.S. adopted an aggressive stance focused on disrupting terrorist networks and preventing future attacks.

Military strategies included the invasion of Afghanistan to dismantle Al-Qaeda and overthrow the Taliban regime, followed by the Iraq War aimed at removing Saddam Hussein’s regime, which was believed to possess weapons of mass destruction and terrorist ties. These interventions sought to eliminate safe havens, destabilize terrorist groups, and promote democratic governance.

Intelligence efforts, such as enhanced surveillance, counterterrorism operations, and international intelligence sharing, have been vital in tracking and disrupting plots. The use of drone strikes in Pakistan, Yemen, and Somalia exemplifies targeted efforts to eliminate high-value terrorist figures with minimal collateral damage.

Homeland security measures, including improved airport security, information sharing between agencies, and emergency preparedness, aim to prevent terrorist attacks within the U.S. The PATRIOT Act and creation of the Department of Homeland Security exemplify legislative and organizational responses to evolving threats.

Diplomatically, the U.S. has sought alliances with foreign countries to combat terrorism, provide training and resources, and promote counter-radicalization programs. Despite successes, these strategies have faced criticism over issues such as civilian casualties, erosion of civil liberties, and the challenge of addressing root causes of radicalization.

Role of Key Events and Actors in the Arab-Israeli Conflict

The Arab-Israeli conflict has been shaped by numerous pivotal events and actors that have defined the trajectory of regional tensions. Three such components are the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization), the Six-Day War, and the Oslo I Accord, each playing a significant role.

The PLO was founded in 1964 as the main representative body of the Palestinian national movement. Its initial goal was the liberation of Palestine through armed struggle. Over time, the PLO evolved, engaging in negotiations and recognizing Israel’s right to exist, especially after the Oslo I Accord, in an effort to seek a two-state solution.

The Six-Day War of 1967 was a defining military conflict in which Israel preemptively struck neighboring Arab states, resulting in its occupation of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula, and Golan Heights. This war significantly altered the regional landscape, escalating tensions, and generating ongoing refugee and territorial issues that continue to influence negotiations today.

The Oslo I Accord of 1993 marked a historic attempt at diplomacy, as Israel and the PLO mutually recognized each other, leading to the establishment of the Palestinian Authority. While it created hope for peace, the agreement faced challenges, and subsequent cycles of violence—such as the Second Intifada—have complicated efforts to resolve the conflict permanently.

These events and actors have contributed to the perpetuation of conflict but also represent efforts to find pathways towards peace and stability in the region.

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