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Epic as Human-Cultural Identity Odyssey - Homer . What do you think the Homeric type of man as Odysseus (Ulysses) in comparison to Socrates? Explain. The Sacred Bible – attributed to Moses . What do you think the Mosaic type of man as Abraham in comparison to Euthyphro? Explain. Section II: Ancient Philosophy as Basis of Western Thought Euthyphro - Socrates & Plato 95-118; . What do you think of Euthyphro’s attempt to define ‘holy’ or ‘piety’? Explain. Apology - Socrates & Plato 4. What do you think of the importance of the Oracle at Delphi and Socrates’ claim? Explain. Laws - Plato 5. What do you think of the concept of ‘tyrant’ and what are its constituent parts? Explain. Physics - Aristotle . What do you think of Aristotle’s concept of ‘nature’? Explain. On the Soul - Aristotle 7. What do you think of Aristotle’s concepts of ‘soul’ and ‘thought’? Explain. Metaphysics - Aristotle 8. What do you think of Aristotle’s statement “All men by nature desire to know†in relation to God? Explain. Principal Doctrines - Epicurus . What do you think of Epicurus’ citation #’s 1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 20, 24, 31, 32 & 33? Explain. Enchiridion - Epictetus . What do you think of Epictetus’ citation #’s 1, 5, 13, 15, 17, 29 & 33? Explain. Enneads – Plotinus What do you think of Plotinus’ ideas on ‘Beautyâ€? Explain.

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The Homeric depiction of Odysseus, often celebrated as the archetype of the heroic individual, contrasts notably with the Socratic conception of the wise man. Odysseus embodies the Homeric ideal through his valor, cunning, and resilience amidst adversity, emphasizing qualities that uphold human strength and perseverance. In comparison, Socrates exemplifies the pursuit of wisdom through self-examination, humility, and a commitment to ethical inquiry. While Odysseus demonstrates outward heroism, Socrates seeks internal virtue, often questioning societal norms to reach a deeper understanding of moral truth. Both figures reflect foundational aspects of their respective cultures—Odysseus as a symbol of heroic endurance in Homeric Greece, and Socrates as a voice for critical rationality in classical Athens. Their contrasting ideals highlight differing notions of human excellence: one centered on physical prowess and survival, the other on intellectual virtue and moral self-awareness.

The Mosaic figure of Abraham, as portrayed in the Bible, also contrasts with the Euthyphro dilemma posed in Plato’s dialogue. Abraham exemplifies faith and obedience to divine command, trusting God's will even when it conflicts with human logic or morality. Euthyphro, on the other hand, attempts to define piety as what is loved by the gods or what is morally right—raising the question of whether morality is independent of divine approval or derived from divine authority. Abraham’s unwavering faith aligns with a divine command perspective, emphasizing divine authority over human reasoning, whereas Euthyphro’s quest highlights the philosophical tension about the nature of morality: is something pious because the gods command it, or do the gods command it because it is inherently good? These figures embody divergent approaches to understanding divine morality—faith-based submission versus rational inquiry.

Regarding Euthyphro’s attempt to define ‘holy’ or ‘piety,’ his effort underscores the challenge of articulating the essence of moral virtues through rigid definitions. Euthyphro’s initial definitions—what is pleasing to the gods and what is per se holy—succumb to paradoxes and circular reasoning, indicating that piety is complex and perhaps beyond simple categorization. His failure reflects the philosophical insight that moral terms often defy straightforward definition and require nuanced understanding beyond formal rules. Socrates’ dialectical method aims to refine moral concepts continually, emphasizing the importance of critical inquiry over dogmatic certainty in ethical discourse.

The Oracle at Delphi held profound significance in ancient Greece, as Socrates famously claimed that it declared him the wisest man because he recognized his own ignorance. Socrates’ assertion reveals his philosophical stance that acknowledging one’s ignorance is the first step to wisdom, contrasting with the arrogance of those who falsely believe they know everything. The oracle’s pronouncement thus underscores the importance of humility in the pursuit of truth and the value of critical questioning, which Socrates exemplified. This event catalyzed Socrates’ method of Socratic dialogue, encouraging a skeptical inquiry that remains foundational in Western philosophy.

The concept of the ‘tyrant’ in Plato’s Laws is characterized by excessive desire for power, unchecked ambition, and the suppression of rational governance. A tyrant embodies internal and external elements—an allegiance to personal pleasure over justice, and the tyrant’s rule often relies on violence, manipulation, and the denial of moral virtue. As a political figure, the tyrant epitomizes the destruction of law and order when personal passions override the common good. Plato’s analysis emphasizes that tyranny arises from the corruption of the soul and the failure of rational administration, serving as a warning against absolute power without ethical constraints.

Aristotle’s concept of ‘nature’ posits that everything in the universe has an inherent purpose or final cause, guiding its development and behavior. Nature is organized and intelligible, and understanding its principles allows humans to live harmoniously within it. Aristotle’s teleological view suggests that natural phenomena embody a purpose aimed at achieving the good, emphasizing that humans, as rational beings, must cultivate virtues to fulfill their natural potential. His notion of nature underscores the importance of understanding the natural order for personal and societal well-being.

Aristotle’s theories of ‘soul’ and ‘thought’ integrate aspects of psychology and metaphysics, proposing that the soul is the essential form of living beings, facilitating a unity between body and mind. The soul encompasses faculties such as nutrition, perception, and reasoning—each corresponding to different levels of human development. Thought, as a function of the rational soul, exemplifies humans' capacity for logic, reflection, and abstract reasoning. These concepts emphasize that the soul is not merely a spiritual entity but the core principle that animates and grants purpose to human life, enabling intellectual activity and moral judgment.

Aristotle’s declaration that “All men by nature desire to know” relates to his teleological view of human nature, suggesting an intrinsic drive towards understanding the universe and seeking truths, which aligns with the divine aspect of knowledge of God. This curiosity is not random but rooted in the human soul’s orientation towards fulfillment through intellectual virtue. In relation to God, Aristotle believed that this pursuit of knowledge elevates the soul towards divine contemplation, asserting that the desire to know is fundamentally linked to our essence as rational beings seeking ultimate truth and understanding divine order.

Epicurus’ principal doctrines emphasize the pursuit of happiness through the moderation of desires and the cultivation of friendship and intellectual pleasure. His assertion that pleasure is the highest good is nuanced—distinguishing between fleeting physical pleasures and lasting mental tranquility. Epicurus advocates for a life free from unnecessary desires and fear, especially the fear of gods and death, to attain ataraxia, or serenity. His teachings encourage rational understanding of nature and discouragement of superstition, aligning happiness with simplicity, moderation, and community.

Epictetus’ teachings focus on Stoic principles of acceptance, rational control, and virtue. His citation that emphasizes distinguishing between what is within our control and what is not encourages resilience and tranquility amidst adversity. Epictetus advocates for internal mastery over external circumstances, promoting ethical living consistent with nature’s order. His focus on mindfulness, discipline, and self-improvement underscores that true freedom arises from aligning one’s will with rational living and accepting fate with equanimity.

Plotinus’ ideas on ‘Beauty’ encompass a metaphysical realm that surpasses physical appearance, reflecting perfection and unity in the divine realm. For Plotinus, beauty is an emanation of the One, embodying harmony, order, and divine goodness that elevates the soul toward union with the divine. His conception suggests that true beauty is spiritual and intellectual, inspiring the soul to transcend the material and embrace higher realities. This emphasis on inner perfection and harmony elevates aesthetic appreciation to a pursuit of divine truth and spiritual ascent.

References

• Aristotle. (2009). Metaphysics. Oxford University Press.
• Epicurus. (1994). Principal Doctrines. In R. Crisp (Ed.), The Ethics of Epicurus. Cambridge University Press.
• Epictetus. (2014). The Enchiridion. Hackett Publishing Company.
• Plato. (1997). The Laws. Hackett Publishing Company.
• Plato. (2000). The Euthyphro. In G.M.A. Grube (Trans.), Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing.
• Socrates. (2012). The Apology. In B. Ingram (Trans.), Five Dialogues. Hackett Publishing.
• Plotinus. (2006). The Enneads. Paul Henry (Trans.). Harvard University Press.
• Homer. (1990). The Odyssey. Robert Fagles (Trans.). Viking Penguin.
• Wolterstorff, N. (2014). God and the Good: Nature, Law, and Divine Justice. Cambridge University Press.
• MacIntyre, A. (2007). After Virtue. University of Notre Dame Press.