Answer The Following Problems Showing Your Work And Explain
Answer The Following Problems Showing Your Work And Explaining Or Ana
Answer the following problems showing your work and explaining (or analyzing) your results. 1. Explain Type I and Type II errors. Use an example if needed. 2. Explain a one-tailed and two-tailed test. Use an example if needed. 3. Define the following terms in your own words: Null hypothesis, P-value, Critical value, Statistically significant. 4. A homeowner is getting carpet installed. The installer is charging her for 250 square feet. She thinks this is more than the actual space being carpeted. She asks a second installer to measure the space to confirm her doubt. Write the null hypothesis Ho and the alternative hypothesis Ha. 5. Drug A is the usual treatment for depression in graduate students. Pfizer has a new drug, Drug B, that it thinks may be more effective. You have been hired to design the test program. As part of your project briefing, you decide to explain the logic of statistical testing to the people who are going to be working for you. Write the research hypothesis and the null hypothesis. Then construct a table like the one below, displaying the outcomes that would constitute Type I and Type II error. Write a paragraph explaining which error would be more severe, and why. 6. Cough-a-Lot children’s cough syrup is supposed to contain 6 ounces of medicine per bottle. However since the filling machine is not always precise, there can be variation from bottle to bottle. The amounts in the bottles are normally distributed with σ = 0.3 ounces. A quality assurance inspector measures 10 bottles and finds the following (in ounces): 5.91. Are the results enough evidence to conclude that the bottles are not filled adequately at the labeled amount of 6 ounces per bottle? a. State the hypothesis you will test. b. Calculate the test statistic. c. Find the P-value. d. What is the conclusion? 7. Calculate a Z score when X=20, μ=17, and σ=3.4. 8. Using a standard normal probabilities table, interpret the results for the Z score in Problem 7. 9. Your babysitter claims that she is underpaid given the current market. Her hourly wage is $12 per hour. You do some research and discover that the average wage in your area is $14 per hour with a standard deviation of 1.9. Calculate the Z score and use the table to find the standard normal probability. Based on your findings, should you give her a raise? Explain your reasoning as to why or why not. 10. Tutor O-rama claims that their services will raise student SAT math scores at least 50 points. The average score on the math portion of the SAT is μ=350 and σ=35. The 100 students who completed the tutoring program had an average score of 385 points. Is the average score of 385 points significant at the 5% level? Is it significant at the 1% level? Explain why or why not.
Sample Paper For Above instruction
Understanding the fundamentals of statistical hypothesis testing is crucial in making data-driven decisions across various fields, from healthcare to education. This paper aims to elucidate core concepts such as Type I and Type II errors, the distinction between one-tailed and two-tailed tests, and key statistical terms. Additionally, real-world examples will be used to illustrate hypothesis formulation and testing, demonstrating the application of statistical principles to practical scenarios.
1. Type I and Type II Errors
Type I and Type II errors are fundamental concepts in hypothesis testing. A Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis, which is true, is incorrectly rejected. This is akin to a false positive, where one concludes an effect or difference exists when it actually does not. For example, in a medical trial testing a new drug, a Type I error would mean falsely concluding that the drug is effective when it is not. Conversely, a Type II error involves failing to reject a false null hypothesis, leading to a false negative. This means missing an effect that actually exists. Continuing with the medical example, a Type II error would mean concluding that the drug has no effect when it actually does.
2. One-Tailed vs. Two-Tailed Tests
A one-tailed test evaluates the possibility of an effect in one direction only. For example, testing whether a new medication increases recovery rates involves assessing whether the recovery rate is greater than the current rate. A two-tailed test, on the other hand, evaluates whether an effect exists in either direction — both an increase or decrease. For instance, testing whether a new teaching method affects test scores without specifying whether scores will increase or decrease. The choice depends on the research question: one-tailed tests are used when the direction of the effect is predicted, while two-tailed tests are used for detecting any difference regardless of direction.
3. Key Statistical Terms
Null hypothesis (Ho): A statement proposing no effect or no difference, serving as the default assumption to test against.
P-value: The probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as those observed, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
Critical value: The threshold value that the test statistic must exceed to reject the null hypothesis at a specified significance level.
Statistically significant: A result is considered statistically significant if the P-value is less than the predetermined alpha level, indicating strong evidence against the null hypothesis.
4. Formulating Hypotheses for Carpet Measurement
Null hypothesis (Ho): The actual carpeted area is equal to 250 square feet. (Ho: μ = 250)
Alternative hypothesis (Ha): The actual carpeted area is less than 250 square feet, implying the installer is charging more than the actual space. (Ha: μ
5. Designing a Drug Efficacy Test
Research hypothesis: Drug B is more effective than Drug A in treating depression. (Ha: μB > μA)
Null hypothesis: Drug B is no more effective than Drug A. (Ho: μB ≤ μA)
| Outcome | Type I Error (False Positive) | Type II Error (False Negative) |
|---|---|---|
| Reject Ho when Ho is true | Occurs if concluding Drug B is more effective when it is not | |
| Fail to reject Ho when Ha is true |
In this context, a Type I error might lead to approving a less effective drug, exposing patients to unnecessary side effects. A Type II error might delay the adoption of a more effective treatment. Typically, in medical testing, minimizing Type I errors is more critical to prevent false claims of efficacy, although the severity depends on context and consequences.
6. Testing the Fill Level of Cough Syrup Bottles
a. Hypotheses:
- Null hypothesis (Ho): The mean filling amount = 6 ounces (μ = 6)
- Alternative hypothesis (Ha): The mean filling amount ≠ 6 ounces (μ ≠ 6)
b. Calculating the test statistic:
X̄ = (sum of measurements) / n = (let's assume the sum based on 10 measurements similar to 5.91) for illustration, with measurements close to 6, assume the mean is 5.9 ounces.
Calculate the z-score: z = (X̄ - μ) / (σ/√n) = (5.9 - 6) / (0.3/√10) ≈ -2.11
c. The P-value can be found using standard normal distribution tables or software, corresponding to z ≈ -2.11, P ≈ 0.035. This indicates the probability of observing such a sample mean if the true mean is 6 ounces.
d. Based on an alpha level of 0.05, since P ≈ 0.035
7. Calculating a Z Score
Z = (X - μ) / σ = (20 - 17) / 3.4 ≈ 0.88
8. Interpreting Z Score with Standard Normal Table
Using a table, a Z score of 0.88 corresponds to a cumulative probability of approximately 0.81. This indicates that about 81% of the data falls below this Z score, suggesting that the observed value of 20 is slightly above the mean but within typical variation.
9. Assessing Babysitter’s Wage
Z = (Sample wage - Population mean) / Standard deviation = (12 - 14) / 1.9 ≈ -1.05
From the Z table, a Z of -1.05 corresponds to a probability of about 0.1478. This indicates there is roughly a 14.78% chance that a wage this low or lower occurs if the true mean is $14. Therefore, her wage is somewhat below average but not extremely rare. Given this, the boss might consider whether her wages reflect her performance, but statistically, she isn't significantly underpaid at a typical significance level.
10. Significance of Tutoring Program
Null hypothesis (Ho): The tutoring program does not increase scores by at least 50 points (μ ≤ 350 + 50 = 400).
Alternative hypothesis (Ha): The program increases scores by at least 50 points (μ > 400).
Calculating the Z score: Z = (Sample mean - hypothesized mean) / (σ / √n) = (385 - 400) / (35 / √100) = -15 / (3.5) ≈ -4.29.
Since the sample mean exceeds 350, and we're testing if it is significantly higher, the Z score must be positive to indicate significance. Using the actual data:
Z = (385 - 350) / (35 / √100) = 35 / 3.5 = 10.0
At any significance level, a Z score of 10 is far beyond critical values at 5% and 1% levels. Therefore, the improvement is statistically significant, demonstrating the tutoring's effectiveness.
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