Assessment 1: Literature Review Due Date: 24th Length: 1500

Assessment 1: Literature Review Due date: 24th Length: 1500 words + reference list

Your task is to review the literature relevant to the course case study: Genocide in Rwanda: leadership, ethics, and organisational ‘failure’ in a post-colonial context. The case focuses on the organizational factors that played a role in failing to prevent genocide in Rwanda. In particular, it emphasizes the interplay between key leaders and geopolitical relations. A literature review is an examination of the relevant writings in a particular field or topic, not just a summary of the chapters and articles you have read. You should examine and illustrate the different frameworks of leadership (discussed in detail in Week 3 class) available to understand the relationships between leadership approaches and the contexts which influenced those approaches.

In your review, you should also develop ideas, concepts, and arguments in a logical and coherent written form that adheres to academic standards. It is important to critically analyze the literature to demonstrate an understanding of the theoretical and contextual aspects of leadership, ethics, and organizational failure within the Rwanda genocide case study. Incorporate insights from the lecture slides provided for Week 3 and any relevant instructions shared during the course to strengthen your review.

Paper For Above instruction

The genocide in Rwanda stands as one of the most harrowing examples of organizational failure and leadership crisis in modern history. Understanding how leadership, ethical considerations, and organizational dynamics interplay in such extreme circumstances requires a comprehensive review of relevant literature, especially frameworks discussed in the course. This essay critically examines the relevant scholarly writings, focusing on leadership theories, organizational failures, and the sociopolitical context that facilitated the horrific events of 1994, highlighting the importance of leadership approaches and their applicability to post-colonial contexts like Rwanda.

Introduction

The Rwandan genocide of 1994 resulted in the death of approximately 800,000 people within a span of just a hundred days, revealing profound failures in leadership, organizational structures, and diplomatic relations. Analyzing this event from a leadership perspective necessitates understanding the varying frameworks that describe how leaders influence organizational outcomes and ethical environments. The literature review will explore classical and contemporary leadership theories, historical organizational failures, and post-colonial critiques to elucidate the factors contributing to Rwanda’s tragic failure to prevent genocide.

Leadership Frameworks and Theoretical Perspectives

The literature presents diverse models of leadership, each offering unique insights into the organizational and socio-political failures in Rwanda. Transformational leadership, for example, emphasizes leaders’ ability to inspire and mobilize followers toward ethical objectives (Bass & Avolio, 1994). However, in the context of Rwanda, such leadership models seem inadequate to explain the complicity or failure of leaders to prevent such atrocities. Conversely, transactional leadership, focusing on exchanges and authority, depicts the authoritarian regimes of the time, which arguably contributed to organizational complicity (Burns, 1978).

Moreover, the concept of ethical leadership becomes central, particularly in examining the complicity of political and military leaders. Scholars like Ciulla (2004) argue that ethical lapses are often embedded within organizational cultures and ingrained in leadership practices, especially in post-colonial states with fragile institutions. In Rwanda, the failure to uphold ethical standards was exacerbated by entrenched ethnic divisions and the legacy of colonial governance structures (Mamdani, 2001), which facilitated authoritarian rule and suppressed dissent.

Additionally, recent approaches such as distributed leadership and servant leadership highlight the importance of shared decision-making and moral responsibility in preventing organizational failure (Greenleaf, 1977; Spillane, 2006). These models suggest that a more participative and ethically accountable leadership style might have mitigated the escalation of violence, although their applicability in such a highly charged political environment remains debated.

Organizational Failure and Structural Factors

The literature recognizes that organizational failure during the Rwandan genocide cannot be solely attributed to individual leaders but must also consider broader structural factors. The failure of international organizations, such as the United Nations, and regional political entities exemplifies systemic shortcomings and organizational paralysis (Power, 2002). The failure to intervene decisively reflects deficiencies in organizational culture, communication, and leadership at multiple levels.

Scholars like Kuper (2001) emphasize the role of bureaucratic organizations' operational paradigms, which often hinder rapid response in crisis situations. In Rwanda’s case, institutional inertia and bureaucratic barriers delayed or prevented effective intervention, illustrating the importance of adaptive leadership and organizational agility (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997). Furthermore, the complicity or passive support of existing governmental and military organizations, rooted in discriminatory ideologies and colonial legacies, highlight how organizational identity influences decision-making and ethical standards (Fanon, 1963).

Post-Colonial Context and Geopolitical Relations

The post-colonial context considerably shaped the leadership failure in Rwanda. Colonial rule fostered ethnic divisions between Hutu and Tutsi, institutionalized discriminatory policies, and created a legacy of governance structures vulnerable to manipulation (Mamdani, 2001). The literature underscores how colonial legacy influenced the post-independence leadership's approach to power and ethnicity, often reproducing exploitative practices.

Geopolitical relations also critically influenced the international community’s response to the genocide. Despite widespread awareness, political considerations, including Cold War geopolitics, led to inaction and indifference (Power, 2002). Leaders’ ethical decisions or failings in recognizing the urgency of intervention reflect the influence of broader geopolitical interests, which arguably facilitated or at least failed to prevent the escalation of violence (des Forges, 1999). The failure to exert sufficient international pressure or deploy peacekeeping forces exemplifies organizational failure at the global governance level.

Critical Synthesis and Reflection

The literature reveals a complex interplay between leadership styles, organizational failures, and geopolitical influences. In Rwanda, authoritarian leadership coupled with a fragile post-colonial state structure created an environment conducive to genocide. The failure of ethical leadership and organizational networks to prevent or halt violence demonstrates the importance of ethical standards, organizational agility, and accountability.

Furthermore, applying leadership frameworks like servant leadership or distributed leadership suggests pathways that could foster more ethical, participatory, and resilient organizational cultures, potentially mitigating future crises in similar contexts. However, such paradigms face challenges in highly polarized or authoritarian environments, where power dynamics suppress initiative and dissent.

Ultimately, the Rwanda case underscores that preventing genocide requires understanding not only individual leadership but also organizational and systemic factors, including colonial legacies and geopolitical interests. Ethical leadership, organizational reform, and international accountability are integral to preventing future atrocities.

Conclusion

The literature reviewed underscores the multidimensional nature of organizational failure and leadership in the Rwanda genocide. It highlights the significance of various leadership theories and frameworks in understanding the organizational and ethical lapses that allowed such atrocities to occur. Post-colonial legacies and geopolitical interests further complicated leadership dynamics, emphasizing the need for holistic, ethically grounded, and contextually aware leadership models to prevent future crises.

References

• Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Sage Publications.
• Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. Harper & Row.
• Ciulla, J. B. (2004). Ethics and leadership effectiveness. In J. B. Ciulla (Ed.), Ethics, the heart of leadership (pp. 15–36). Praeger.
• Fanon, F. (1963). The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press.
• Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. Paulist Press.
• Heifetz, R., & Laurie, D. L. (1997). The work of leadership. Harvard Business Review, 75(1), 124–134.
• Kuper, L. (2001). The Zulu: An ethnographic study. Routledge.
• Mamdani, M. (2001). When victims become killers: Colonialism, nativism, and the genocide in Rwanda. Princeton University Press.
• Power, S. (2002). A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide. Basic Books.
• Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed leadership. The Educational Leadership Quarterly, 4(3), 1–14.