At Least 500 Words Formatted And Cited In Proper Current APA

At Least 500 Wordsformatted And Cited In Proper Current Apa Style Wi

Part 1: Psoriasis – Underlying Cause and Clinical Manifestations

Psoriasis is a chronic, immune-mediated inflammatory skin condition characterized by the rapid proliferation of keratinocytes leading to the formation of thick, scaly plaques on the skin. The underlying pathophysiology of psoriasis involves complex interactions between genetic predisposition and environmental triggers that activate the immune system. Recent advances have demonstrated that the disease is primarily driven by an abnormal immune response involving T-helper cells, particularly Th17 cells, which produce cytokines such as interleukin-17 (IL-17) and interleukin-23 (IL-23). These cytokines promote keratinocyte proliferation and sustain the inflammatory process, resulting in the characteristic skin lesions observed in psoriasis (Nestle, Conrad, & Homey, 2009).

Genetic factors significantly contribute to the susceptibility of psoriasis. It is known that psoriasis has a hereditary component, with studies indicating a strong familial association, especially in cases where first-degree relatives are affected. Specifically, the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) C*06:02 allele has been identified as a major genetic marker associated with the disease (Tsoi et al., 2017). Environmental triggers such as stress, infections, skin trauma, and certain medications can further initiate or exacerbate the condition in genetically predisposed individuals.

Clinically, psoriasis presents with diverse signs and symptoms, with the most common form being plaque psoriasis. Patients exhibit well-demarcated, erythematous plaques covered with silvery-white scales. These plaques often occur on the elbows, knees, scalp, and lower back. The lesions may itch, crack, and sometimes bleed, leading to significant discomfort and psychological distress. In addition to cutaneous manifestations, psoriasis can be associated with systemic comorbidities such as psoriatic arthritis, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and depression, underscoring its nature as a systemic inflammatory disorder (Griffiths & Barker, 2007).

Part 2: Breast Conditions – Definitions, Comparing, and Contrasting

Fibrocystic breast disease, fibroadenoma, and malignant breast tumors are common breast conditions that vary significantly in their pathology, presentation, and management.

Fibrocystic breast disease refers to a benign condition characterized by lumpy, tender breasts, often fluctuating with hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle. It results from proliferative changes in the ducts and lobules, leading to the formation of cysts, fibrosis, and ductal hyperplasia. Women typically report bilateral breast pain, swelling, and tenderness, especially before menstruation (Kessler et al., 2019). It is a common condition, affecting up to 50% of women at some point in their lives, and is considered a normal variant rather than a precursor to cancer.

In contrast, fibroadenomas are solid, benign breast tumors composed of both glandular and stromal tissue. They are most frequently diagnosed in young woman aged between 15 and 35 years. Clinically, fibroadenomas appear as firm, smooth, rubbery, and well-defined masses that are mobile upon palpation. Unlike fibrocystic changes, fibroadenomas typically do not fluctuate with the menstrual cycle and are usually painless (Litt et al., 2013). Management often involves observation or surgical excision if necessary.

Malignant breast tumors, commonly known as breast cancer, represent the most serious form of breast pathology. Breast cancer arises from uncontrolled proliferation of malignant epithelial cells within the ducts or lobules. It can present as a persistent lump, skin changes, nipple retraction, or discharge. Unlike benign conditions, malignant tumors are typically fixed, irregular in shape, and may be associated with skin edema or ulceration. Risk factors include genetic predisposition (e.g., BRCA mutations), age, hormonal factors, and lifestyle factors such as alcohol use and obesity (Bray et al., 2018). The prognosis depends on early detection and treatment, which may involve surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, and targeted therapies.

In summary, while fibrocystic breast disease and fibroadenomas are benign conditions with different pathophysiology and clinical features, malignant breast tumors are life-threatening conditions requiring prompt diagnosis and treatment. Clear differentiation among these conditions involves clinical examination, imaging studies such as mammography or ultrasound, and definitive diagnosis via biopsy when necessary.

References

• Bray, F., Ferlay, J., Soerjomataram, I., Siegel, R. L., Torre, L. A., & Jemal, A. (2018). Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. Cancer Journal, 68(6), 394–424. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21492
• Griffiths, C. E., & Barker, J. N. (2007). Pathogenesis and clinical features of psoriasis. Lancet, 370(9583), 263-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61128-1
• Kessler, L., Fuller, C. M., & Bailey, L. (2019). Fibrocystic breast changes. American Family Physician, 99(8), 503-509.
• Litt, D. C., Friedman, D. L., & Cooley, T. (2013). Fibroadenomas of the breast. American Journal of Surgery, 206(3), 354-359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2013.02.013
• Nestle, F. O., Conrad, C., & Homey, B. (2009). Skin immunity. Nature Reviews Immunology, 9(10), 699-711. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2631
• Tsoi, L. C., Spain, S. L., Knight, J., et al. (2017). Identification of 15 new psoriasis susceptibility loci highlights the role of innate immunity. Nature Communications, 8, 15382. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15382