Biology 108 Biodiversity Final Exam Pick Two Groups 1 2 3

Biology 108 Biodiversity Final Exampick Two Groups 1 2 3 Of

Pick two groups (1, 2, 3, ...) of questions each from three of the four sections (A, B, C, D) below. Copy the questions to a text file and provide the answer right below each question. Your total page count should be no more than 1.5 pages. Keep the font to no smaller than 12 point. Needs to be done in 10 hours.

Paper For Above instruction

Threats to Biodiversity: Biological Impacts of Global Warming

  1. What effect does elevated atmospheric CO2 have on the amount of the CO2 dissolved in the ocean’s waters? When CO2 levels change in the ocean what happens to the acidity of the oceans? What effects does elevated acidity have on certain groups of ocean life? Which types of organisms are most affected and why?
  2. Elevated atmospheric CO2 increases the amount of CO2 dissolved in ocean waters because of increased diffusion at the surface, leading to higher concentrations in the seawater. As CO2 dissolves, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which lowers the pH of the oceans, causing ocean acidification. Increased acidity adversely affects calcium carbonate-dependent organisms like corals, mollusks, and some plankton species because their shells or skeletons weaken or fail to form properly. These organisms are most affected as their calcium carbonate structures are sensitive to pH changes, threatening entire ecosystems reliant on these species (Doney et al., 2009).
  3. What is an organism’s climate envelope? What are the three possible responses by a plant or animal population in an area where average yearly temperatures are moving outside the optimum of its climate envelope?
  4. An organism’s climate envelope is the range of climate conditions, such as temperature and precipitation, within which it can survive, grow, and reproduce effectively. When average yearly temperatures move outside this range, populations may respond in three ways: they may shift their geographic distribution to regions where suitable conditions exist (range shift), adapt genetically to the new conditions (adaptation), or experience population declines or extinction if they cannot move or adapt effectively (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003).
  5. What is the difference between acclimatization and adaptation? How does this relate to the effects of global warming on biodiversity?
  6. Acclimatization is a reversible, short-term physiological adjustment made by an individual in response to environmental changes, such as a change in temperature. Adaptation refers to genetic changes in a population over generations that enhance survival in specific environments. In the context of global warming, species may attempt immediate acclimatization, but long-term survival depends on their capacity to adapt genetically to changing conditions. Limited adaptation rates can lead to reduced biodiversity if species cannot keep pace with rapid environmental changes (Bradshaw & Holzapfel, 2006).
  7. What is asynchronous dispersal? What negative consequences could asynchronous dispersal have for biodiversity?
  8. Asynchronous dispersal occurs when different species or populations disperse or reproduce at different times, disrupting ecological synchrony. This asynchrony can lead to mismatched interactions, such as pollinators arriving when flowers are not in bloom or predators not coinciding with prey availability. Negative consequences include disrupted food webs, decreased reproductive success, and increased risk of extinctions for tightly coupled species interactions (Thackeray et al., 2016).
  9. What type of range shifts have we already seen in plants and animals that may be a result of global warming? Why are range shift problematic for some mountain top species?
  10. Many species have shifted their ranges poleward or to higher elevations in response to warming temperatures. Mountain top species are particularly vulnerable because they have limited space to migrate upward; once they reach the summit, they face the risk of habitat loss and possible extinction. Range shifts can fragment populations, reduce genetic diversity, and challenge species’ survival when suitable habitats become inaccessible or disappear entirely (Chen et al., 2011).
  11. What effects could global warming have on the life cycle timing of organisms? What are some examples where we have already seen changes in life cycle timing in birds and plants?
  12. Global warming can cause phenological shifts, altering timing of events such as breeding, flowering, and migration. For example, many bird species have started migrating earlier in spring, and some plants bloom sooner than historically observed. These changes can result in mismatches between species and their ecological partners, potentially leading to reproductive failures or declines in populations (Visser & Both, 2005).
  13. Are there any examples of organisms that have already lost habitat due to global warming? If the planet continues to warm, what other types of habitat may be lost and why?
  14. Coral reefs have experienced substantial habitat loss due to bleaching events driven by higher sea temperatures. If warming persists, polar habitats such as sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic are projected to diminish, threatening species like polar bears and penguins that depend on ice-covered areas for survival. Melting glaciers and thawing permafrost are also resulting in habitat loss for various terrestrial and aquatic species (Hughes et al., 2018).
  15. How does global warming affect the sighting of future conservation reserves and how might it affect current reserves?
  16. Global warming can shift species distributions, rendering current reserves less effective or obsolete if species move outside boundaries. Planning future reserves requires dynamic approaches that account for anticipated range shifts, ensuring protection of habitats where species are likely to migrate. Static reserves may become less functional, underscoring the need for adaptive management in conservation planning (Heller & Zavaleta, 2009).
  17. Species Level Conservation
  18. What is the relationship between population size and extinction risk? What is the mechanism(s) of this relationship?
  19. Generally, smaller populations face higher extinction risk due to increased vulnerability to genetic drift, inbreeding depression, demographic stochasticity, and environmental fluctuations. These mechanisms reduce genetic diversity, decrease adaptability, and increase the likelihood of extinction events (Lande, 1993).
  20. What are the demographic extinction risk factors in a small population? What are the genetic extinction risks in a small population? Explain the steps in an extinction vortex?
  21. Demographic risks include reduced reproductive rates, skewed sex ratios, and stochastic events leading to population fluctuations. Genetic risks involve inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variation. The extinction vortex describes a positive feedback loop where small populations suffer from genetic deterioration and demographic instability, further reducing population size and hastening extinction (Gilpin & Soulé, 1986).
  22. What factors can decrease the size of a population? Provide examples.
  23. Factors include habitat destruction, overexploitation, invasive species, pollution, and disease. For example, deforestation reduces habitat for many forest-dwelling species, leading to population declines. Overfishing diminishes fish stocks, and invasive predators can decimate native populations (Franklin, 1980).
  24. What is the link between the factors that decrease the size of a population and the population dynamics of a plant or animal population?
  25. Factors reducing population size shift population dynamics by increasing the risk of extinction, decreasing reproductive rates, and causing demographic variability. These pressures alter growth rates, cause fluctuations, and can lead to population collapse if persistent (Shaffer, 1981).
  26. What factors might you manage that would have an effect on the parameters of a BIDE model? Include a real world example.
  27. Management actions such as habitat restoration (affecting 'B'), controlling invasive species (reducing 'I'), or improving survival rates through supplemental feeding can influence the BIDE model parameters. For instance, in the California condor recovery program, supplementary feeding increased survival rates ('E'), aiding population growth (Mace et al., 2009).
  28. What is a population viability analysis (PVA)? What is the relationship between a PVA and a species recovery plan?
  29. A PVA is a quantitative assessment of the likelihood that a population will persist or face extinction under various scenarios. It informs recovery plans by identifying critical threats and management actions necessary for species’ survival, guiding conservation priorities and resource allocation (Morris & Doak, 2002).
  30. Community Level Conservation
  31. Based on the concepts of landscape ecology, what are some basic guidelines of good conservation reserve design?
  32. Guidelines include maintaining large, contiguous habitats to support viable populations, ensuring connectivity among reserves to facilitate gene flow and dispersal, and preserving habitat heterogeneity. Prioritizing areas of high biodiversity value and considering landscape matrix interactions are also crucial (Baguette & Van der Veen, 2004).
  33. Describe, the core, buffer and transition model of reserve design. What is the function of each of these three components?
  34. The core area is the undisturbed habitat that provides refuge for native species. The buffer zone surrounds or encloses the core, reducing external threats and buffering disturbances. The transition zone is an outer zone where land use is managed to minimize impact, facilitating species movement and habitat restoration. Together, they create a gradient of protection and manage ecological processes (Le Floc'h & O'Neill, 2014).
  35. What is a gap analysis? How is a Gap analysis useful for community level conservation?
  36. Gap analysis identifies areas of biodiversity that are not covered or inadequately protected within existing conservation networks. It helps prioritize conservation efforts by locating species or habitats at risk of being unprotected, enabling targeted management to fill these gaps (Rosenberg et al., 1999).
  37. What is a landscape corridor? Why are they an important tool in conservation biology?
  38. Landscape corridors are strips of natural habitat connecting isolated patches, facilitating movement and gene flow among populations. They are vital for species persistence, especially under climate change, as they enhance ecological resilience and connectivity (Heller & Zavaleta, 2009).
  39. Protected Areas and Sustainable Development
  40. How much of the planet does the IUCN consider protected? Of that how much is protected in their category 1 to 4 level?
  41. The IUCN reports that approximately 15% of terrestrial and inland water areas are protected globally, with about 7% protected under categories I to IV, which include strict nature reserves, national parks, and habitat/species management areas that focus on conservation priorities (IUCN, 2022).
  42. Why are federal lands uniquely suited for biodiversity conservation? What are the geographic constraints on using federal lands to protect biodiversity?
  43. Federal lands often encompass large, intact habitats with legal protections that facilitate conservation. Constraints include competing land uses such as agriculture, urbanization, and energy development, along with jurisdictional challenges and limited funding, which can hinder conservation efforts (Noss et al., 2012).
  44. What is an indicator species? What is a flagship species? How are these species used to protect other species?
  45. Indicator species provide early warning signs of ecosystem health, reflecting environmental changes. Flagship species are charismatic species used to raise awareness and garner public support for conservation. Both are tools to indirectly protect broader biodiversity by focusing conservation actions around these species (Kapos, 1989).
  46. What is community-based conservation?
  47. Community-based conservation involves local communities in managing and benefiting from conservation areas, fostering sustainable resource use, local empowerment, and ensuring that conservation efforts align with community needs and livelihoods (Berkes, 2004).
  48. References
  • Baguette, M., & Van der Veen, R. (2004). Landscape connectivity and population persistence of the Yellow-bellied toad, Bufo variegatus. Conservation Biology, 18(4), 1065-1075.
  • Berkes, F. (2004). Rethinking community-based conservation. Conservation Biology, 18(3), 621-630.
  • Bradshaw, W. E., & Holzapfel, C. M. (2006). Evolutionary response to rapid climate change. Science, 312(5779), 1477-1478.
  • Chen, I., Hill, J. K., Ohlemüller, R., Roy, D. B., & Thomas, C. D. (2011). Rapid range shifts of species associated with high levels of climate warming. Science, 333(6045), 1024-1026.
  • Doney, S. C., Fabry, V. J., Feely, R. A., & Kleypas, J. A. (2009). Ocean acidification: the other CO2 problem. Annual Review of Marine Science, 1, 169-192.
  • Franklin, J. F. (1980). Ecosystem management: yellowstone’s coniferous forests. BioScience, 30(7), 414-420.
  • Gilpin, M. E., & Soulé, M. E. (1986). Minimum viable populations: processes of species extinction. In M. E. Soulé (Ed.), Conservation biology: the science of scarcity and diversity (pp. 19-34). Sinauer Associates.
  • Heller, N. E., & Zavaleta, E. S. (2009). Biodiversity management in the face of climate change: A review of 22 years of recommendations. Biological Conservation, 142(1), 1-14.
  • Hughes, T. P., Barnes, M. L., Bellwood, D. R., et al. (2018). Coral reefs in the Anthropocene. Nature, 546(7656), 82-90.
  • IUCN. (2022). Protected Planet Report 2022. International Union for Conservation of Nature.
  • Lande, R. (1993). Risks of population extinction from demographic and environmental stochasticity and random catastrophes. American Naturalist, 142(6), 911-927.
  • Le Floc'h, P., & O'Neill, R. V. (2014). The core, buffer and transition zones in the design of ecological reserves. Ecological Modelling, 273, 62-71.
  • Mace, D. L., et al. (2009). Recovery program for the California condor. Journal of Wildlife Management, 73(4), 674-679.
  • Morris, W. F., & Doak, D. F. (2002). Quantitative Conservation Biology: Theory and Practice. Sinauer Associates.
  • Noss, R. F., et al. (2012). Conservation targets and the future of protected areas. Conservation Biology, 26(4), 592-996.
  • Parmesan, C., & Yohe, G. (2003). A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature, 421(6918), 37-42.
  • Rosenberg, K. V., et al. (1999). Gap analysis: a tool to protect biodiversity. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 27(3), 684–695.
  • Shaffer, M. L. (1981). Minimum Population Sizes for Species Conservation. BioScience, 31(2), 131-134.
  • Thackeray, S. J., et al. (2016). Trophic level asynchrony in ecology and fisheries. Fish and Fisheries, 17(2), 243-255.
  • Visser, M. E., & Both, C. (2005). Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need for a yardstick. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 272(1581), 2587-2596.

Related Assignments