Bond J Has A Coupon Rate Of 43 Percent; Bond S Has A Coupon

Bond J Has A Coupon Rate Of 43 Percent Bond S Has A Coupon Rate Of 1

Bond J has a coupon rate of 4.3 percent. Bond S has a coupon rate of 14.3 percent. Both bonds have eleven years to maturity, make semiannual payments, a par value of $1,000, and have a YTM of 9.6 percent. If interest rates suddenly rise by 3 percent, what is the percentage price change of these bonds? (A negative answer should be indicated by a minus sign. Do not round intermediate calculations and enter your answers as a percent rounded to 2 decimal places, e.g., 32.16.) Percentage change in price Bond J % Bond S % If interest rates suddenly fall by 3 percent instead, what is the percentage price change of these bonds? (Do not round intermediate calculations and enter your answers as a percent rounded to 2 decimal places, e.g., 32.16.) Percentage change in price Bond J % Bond S % -20.37 Lab 1 – Introduction to Science Exercise 1: The Scientific Method In this exercise, you will answer the questions based on what you have seen in the videos throughout the lab. Be sure to pay careful attention to the videos – you will not only need them to complete this exercise successfully, but also to have a firm understanding of the scientific method for future labs. QUESTIONS 1. Make an observation – Write down any observations you have made regarding the effect of pollution on the environment. Answer = 2. Do background research – Utilizing the scholarly source ( provided here ), describe how pollution might affect yeast. Answer = 3. Construct a hypothesis – Based on your research from question 2, develop an if-then hypothesis relating to the effect of pollution on yeast respiration. Answer = 4. Test with an experiment – Identify the dependent variable, independent variable, and the controlled variables for the experiment. Answer = 5. Analyze results – Record your observations of the three test tubes before incubation and compare them to the observations provided in the video. Answer = Test Tube Initial Appearance Yeast with No Pollutant Yeast with Salt Water Yeast with Detergent 6. Analyze results – Record your observations of the three test tubes after incubation. Answer = Test Tube Final Appearance Yeast with No Pollutant Yeast with Salt Water Yeast with Detergent 7. Analyze results – The table below shows sample data regarding the amount of carbon dioxide produced by each tube. Determine what type of graph would be the most appropriate for displaying the data and explain why you chose that graph. Then, make a graph. Use Microsoft Excel or a free graphing program (for example, ) to create the graph. Submit this with your post-lab questions. Sample Amount CO2 Produced (mL) After 1 Hour Yeast with No Pollutant 7 mL Yeast with Salt Water 0.5 mL Yeast with Detergent 0 mL Answer = 8. Draw conclusions – Interpret the data from the graph in Question 7. What conclusions can you make based on this graph? Answer = 9. Draw conclusions – Based on your observations and your graph, would you reject or accept the hypothesis you made in Question 3? Why? Answer = 10. Draw conclusions – Imagine you are an environmental scientist employed by a city. Some residents have expressed concerns regarding how salt is applied to roadways in the winter because of the harm it may cause aquatic life in area streams. Propose an experiment using yeast to determine if salt pollution runoff is a potential concern in your community. Answer = References Any sources utilized should be listed here. © eScience Labs, 2016 Introduction to Science 12 – The Scientific Method – Observations – Variables – Controls – Data Analysis – Calculations – Data Collection – Percent Error – Scientific Reasoning – Writing a Lab Report Socrates (469 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Plato (427 B.C. - 347 B.C.), and Aristotle (384 B.C. - 322 B.C.) are among the most famous of the Greek philosophers (Figure 1). Plato was a student of Socrates, and Aristotle was a student of Plato. These three philosophers are considered to be the greatest thinkers of their time. Aristotle’s views on science profoundly shaped medieval academics, and his influence extended into the Renaissance (14th - 16th century). His opinions were the authority on science well into the 1300s. Unfortunately, the philosopher’s method was logical thinking and did not involve making direct observations on the natural world. As a result, many of Aristotle’s opinions were incorrect. Although he was extremely intelligent, he used a method for determining the nature of science that was insufficient for the task. For example, in Aristotle’s opinion, men were bigger than women. Therefore, he made the deduction that men would have more teeth than women. It is assumed that he never actually looked into the mouths of both men and women and counted their teeth. If he had, he would have found that males and females have exactly the same number of teeth (Figure 2). In the 16th and 17th centuries, innovative thinkers began developing a new way to investigate the world around them. They were developing a method that relied upon making observations of phenomena and trying to explain why that phenomena occurred. From these techniques, the scientific method was born. The scientific method is a process of investigation that involves experimentation and observation to acquire new knowledge, solve problems, and answer questions. Scientists eventually perfected the methods and reduced it to a series of steps (Figure 3). Today, the scientific method is used as a systematic approach to solving problems. Science begins with observations. Once enough observations or results from preliminary library or experimental research have been collected, a hypothesis can be constructed. Experiments then either verify or disprove the hypothesis. If enough evidence can support a hypothesis, the hypothesis can become a theory, or proven fact. Theories can be further refined by other hypotheses and experimentation. An example of this is how we further refine our knowledge of germ theory by learning about specific pathogens. A scientific law is a summary of observations in which there are no current exceptions using the most recent technology. It can be a general statement, like the Law of Gravity (what goes up must come down), or a mathematical relationship, like Newton’s Law (F = ma). Scientific laws can be broken and theories can be proven wrong as technology improves and provides results that are exceptions to them. The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the person conducting the experiment. It is human nature to have some sort of bias, and even the best-intentioned scientists can’t escape bias. However, in the fields of science where results have to be reviewed and duplicated, bias must be avoided at all costs. The scientific method provides an objective (non-biased), standardized (easily duplicated) approach to conducting experiments. Throughout this lab you will access a series of four videos. These videos describe the steps of the scientific method and will provide the content necessary to answer the post-lab questions. To further understand the scientific method, let’s take a closer look at what each of the steps entails. Please click on the link below to watch the video, gain a better understanding of the scientific method, and answer the post-lab questions. Video 1: Figure 3: A scientific investigation begins with an observation. The first step in the scientific method is observation. This step often comes naturally by watching things going on around the world, noticing different trends, and developing questions when something is confusing. Keep in mind that scientists don’t just use their eyes to form an observation. Instead, they use all of their senses to completely observe something. The more you pay attention to your surroundings, the more you will begin to think like a scientist. Note that your observations don’t have to be oriented around typical “science” things. For instance, scientific observations don’t have to be about textbook chemicals or reactions—they can be about the environment, cooking, people, etc. Gathering as much information as you can on your topic of interest is important because you may discover that someone has already performed an experiment on your observation. In addition, the more information you have on your observation of interest, the easier it will be to make a well-informed and educated prediction regarding what you think might happen during your experiment. Based on your observation(s), a question can be developed. Keep in mind that not every question is a “good” question to test with the scientific method. In this lab, we will focus on “testable” questions, or questions that can be used to construct experiments. These are questions that can be answered by doing a laboratory investigation. They are not opinion questions or questions that can be answered by doing research in a book or on the internet. Developing a good question is important because it gives your experiment direction and informs others of what questions you are trying to answer in your experiment. It must be clear. A question such as “How do students learn best?” is not clear because there are many different ways to test it. A better question might be “Do students learn better before or after sleeping?” because it only tests one particular variable. Keep in mind that you must be able to measure the results in some way for it to be considered a testable question. A hypothesis is a type of prediction that forecasts (predicts) how changing one part of an experiment will affect the results. It is not a guess. It is an informed and well-thought out prediction based upon your background research. Many times, a hypothesis is best written in the “If ________, then ________” format. The blank space after the “if” describes the independent variable (e.g., the experimental component that scientists intentionally manipulate and control). The blank space after the “then” describes the dependent variable (e.g., the predicted result of the change). Please click on the link below to watch the video, learn more about the initial steps of the scientific method, and answer the post-lab questions. Video 2: After you have created a question, scientists construct a hypothesis. However, in order to do this, the experimental variables must first be determined. Variables are conditions that could affect the outcome of an experiment. Think about all of the different things that might affect how well a student performs on a test. The amount of sleep, how long they studied, how well they paid attention in class, if they are feeling well could affect how well they perform. Successful experiments incorporate as few variables as possible. However, you will always have three types of variables (Figure 4): independent variables, dependent variables, and controlled variables. The independent variable is what you change in an experiment. Conversely, the dependent variable is what you measure in an experiment (e.g., the results). There is also a variable called the controlled variable. This accounts for the condition (or conditions) that must remain constant in an experiment. Experiments require controlled variables so that you can determine if the independent variable actually caused the result or if it was something else. In a perfect world, all of the variables would be controlled except for the independent variables. This can be difficult to achieve but is a very important goal. The procedure step is the writing of the materials used and the steps followed when conducting an investigation. The materials list must be complete and the steps to follow must be understandable so the activity can be repeated. Other scientists should be able to look at your procedure, perform the same steps, and get the same results without you telling them anything or giving them any clues. Procedures are best written as a numbered sequence. It is during the procedure step that an experiment will be conducted to test the hypothesis. The experiment must be unbiased in nature, meaning that the scientist cannot create an experiment that will favor the outcome that they have predicted in their hypothesis. Please click on the link below to watch the video, learn more about testing your hypothesis, and answer the post-lab questions. Video 3: Figure 4: Suppose you saw a change in your dependent variable. How do you know that change was caused by your independent variable? You couldn’t be sure unless you had a control. The purpose of holding the control constant is to observe if your independent variable actually caused a change in your dependent variable. Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables in an established, systematic fashion that enables you to answer the hypothesis. Regardless of the experiment, accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of the lab. Accurate means “capable of providing a correct reading or measurement.” In science, a measurement is accurate if it correctly reflects the size of the thing being measured. On the other hand, precise means that an experiment is repeatable, reliable, and gets the same measurement each time (Figure 5). We can never obtain a perfect measurement. The best we can do is to come as close as possible within the limitations of the measuring instruments. Once you have collected your data in the most accurate and precise way, the next step is to communicate your data. A highly effective method for communicating your data is to visually display your results. Common ways of doing this are to create a table or a graph. A table is a well-organized summary of data. Tables should display any information relevant to the hypothesis. Table 1 displays data collected to test a hypothesis about plant growth with or without added nutrients. Tables should include a clearly stated title, labeled columns and rows, and measurement units. A graph is a visual representation of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable. Graphs help to identify trends and illustrate findings (Figures 6 and 7). Here are some of the rules to remember when graphing: The independent variable is always graphed on the x-axis (horizontal), with the dependent variable on the y-axis (vertical). Use appropriate numerical spacing when plotting the graph, with the lower numbers starting in the lower and left-hand corners of both axes. Always use uniform or logarithmic intervals. For example, if you begin by numbering 0, 10, 20, do not jump to 25 and then 32. Title the graph and both the x- and y-axes with a unit and label such that they correspond to the data table from which they come. For example, if you titled your table “Top Speed of Different Car Models,” the graph title should reference this information as well. Did you know that there are codes of ethics in scientific research, even for students? Some of these principles are: Honesty: Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, and data interpretation. Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence. Carefully and critically examine your own work. Variable Height Wk. 1 (mm) Height Wk. 2 (mm) Height Wk. 3 (mm) Height Wk. 4 (mm) Control (without nutrients) 3.4 3.6 3.7 4.0 Independent (with nutrients) 3.5 3.7 4.1 4.6 Table 1: Plant Growth With and Without Added Nutrients 17 The independent variable is always graphed on the x-axis (horizontal), with the dependent variable on the y-axis (vertical). Use appropriate numerical spacing when plotting the graph, with the lower numbers starting in the lower and left-hand corners of both axes. Always use uniform or logarithmic intervals. For example, if you begin by numbering 0, 10, 20, do not jump to 25 and then 32. Title the graph and both the x- and y-axes with a unit and label such that they correspond to the data table from which they come. Did you know that there are codes of ethics in scientific research, even for students? Some of these principles are: Honesty: Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, and data interpretation. Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence. Carefully and critically examine your own work. Figure 6: Sample bar graph. Bar graphs are best for demonstrating comparisons between categories or trial events. Figure 7: Sample line graph. Line graphs are best used to show how changes occur for a variable over time. Scientists draw conclusions by examining the data from the experiment. There are basically two possible outcomes. Either the experiment supported the hypothesis and it can be regarded as true, or the experiment disproved the hypothesis (Figure 8). If the hypothesis is false, it is always recommended that you repeat the steps in the scientific method and make adjustments to your hypothesis. If the hypothesis turns out to be false, there are some questions to ask to find out why: What was wrong with the original hypothesis? Did you make poor observations? Was your experiment flawed? Please click on the link below to watch the video, gain a better understanding of how to interpret your results, and answer the post-lab questions. Video 4: Ashford_04.mp4 Figure 8: Scientists document in pen and date all of their work to maintain the integrity of their results as well as to help ensure reproducibility. Lab Report Section Purpose Title A short statement summarizing the topic. Abstract A brief summary of the methods, results, and conclusions. It should not exceed 200 words and should be the last part written. Introduction An overview of why the experiment was conducted. It should include: Background - Provide an overview of what is already known and what questions remain unresolved. Be sure the reader is given enough information to know why and how the experiment was performed. Objective - Explain the purpose of the experiment (i.e., "I want to determine if taking baby aspirin every day prevents second heart attacks.") Hypothesis - This is your "prediction" as to what will happen when you do the experiment. Materials and Methods A detailed (step-by-step) description of what was used to conduct the experiment and how it was done. The description should be exact enough that someone reading the report can replicate the experiment. Results Data and observations obtained during the experiment. This section should be clear and concise. Tables and graphs are often appropriate in this section. Interpretations should not be included here. Discussion Data analysis, interpretations, and experimental conclusions. - Discuss the meaning of your findings. Look for common themes, relationships, and points that perhaps generate more questions. - When appropriate, discuss outside factors (e.g., temperature, time of day, etc.) that may have played a role in the experiment. - Identify what could be done to control for these factors in future experiments. Conclusion A short, concise summary that states what has been learned. References You should reference any articles, books, magazines, interviews, newspapers, etc. that were used to support your background, experimental protocols, discussions, and conclusions. Your references should be written in the APA format. The following web site is a helpful citation maker. Please include credible sources such as scientific journals, academic books, and reputable online resources to support your analysis and discussion of the scientific method, bond valuation, and ethical research practices in scientific experiments.