Buildings Across Time, 4th Edition Chapter Fifteen: The Twen

Buildings across Time, 4th Edition Chapter Fifteen: The Twentieth Century and Modernism

While all architecture has been “modern” at the time of its construction, the term “Modernism” or “European Modernism” has been used throughout the twentieth century to describe the radical attitude toward building that developed in Europe after World War I. Modernism was exported to the United States and elsewhere and became known as the International Style. Advocates of this architecture, characterized by sleek, unornamented surfaces, interpenetrating spatial volumes, and a generally machine-made aesthetic, saw it as expressive of the “spirit of the age.” Detractors viewed it as boringly reductivist and short on meaning.

Adolf Loos’s Steiner House (Vienna, 1910) exemplifies radical architectural proposals with orthogonal massing, punched-out windows, and a lack of ornament, although he made concessions to the surrounding residential context. Loos’s later works, like the Moller House (Vienna, 1930), move away from symmetry and prioritize interior space, manipulating floor heights and creating displaced horizontal spatial units.

Loos’s Lido Villa (Venice, 1923) showcases his spatial ideas through ceiling height variations and sliding vertical shafts of space. Frank Lloyd Wright’s Winslow House (River Forest, 1893) and Robie House (Chicago, 1909) demonstrate innovations in residential design emphasizing horizontality, projecting spaces, and organic forms inspired by Japanese prints.

Wright’s Johnson Wax Headquarters (Racine) features organic, tree-like structural forms, while the V. C. Morris Gift Shop (San Francisco) explores spiraling ramps that create immersive volumes. His Unity Temple (Oak Park, 1906) employs poured-in-place concrete, breaking traditional church design with a focus on economy and innovative form language.

In landscape and large-scale architecture, Wright’s Imperial Hotel (Tokyo) exhibits symmetry with central spaces, akin to Beaux-Arts principles, while Peter Behrens’s design for AEG (Berlin, 1908) signals the rise of industrial design with its emphasis on functionality and branding.

Modernist innovations extended into expressionist architecture, such as the Goetheanum II (Dornach, 1928) by Rudolf Steiner—a building embodying spiritual and philosophical ideals—and the Einstein Tower (Potsdam, 1928) by Mendehlson, which combines modest size with monumental aesthetics for scientific purposes.

Futurism and Constructivism explore dynamic cities and collective functions. Antonio Sant’Elia’s Milan train station (1913) imagines a highly transport-oriented urban center, while Melnikov’s Russian Workers’ Club (Moscow) reflects a revolutionary collective ethos.

The exploitation of concrete as a building material is exemplified by Perret’s Rue Franklin (Paris, 1902), which innovatively casts ornament into its skin. Le Corbusier’s Dom-ino system (1914) marked a revolution in structural independence from enclosure, inspiring houses like Citrohan (1922) and Villa Stein (1927), which explore free plans and adaptable facades.

The Villa Savoye (Poissy, 1929) epitomizes the International Style with its free plan, supporting columns, ribbon windows, and roof garden, representing a synthesis of structural and aesthetic modernism. Mies van der Rohe’s Barcelona Pavilion (1929) and Tugendhat House (Brno, 1930) demonstrate a preference for clarity, minimal ornament, and spatial experiments.

Art Deco design is reflected in the New York Daily News Building (1931) with its decorative panels, and the Empire State Building (1931), which combines height with stylized ornamentation. Wright’s later works, such as the Johnson Wax Headquarters and the Guggenheim Museum, continue organic explorations through innovative structural and spatial solutions.

Le Corbusier’s major projects include the Unité d’Habitation (Marseilles, 1947) and the radical Ronchamp chapel (1950), characterized by sculptural forms and spiritual symbolism. His schemes for Chandigarh (India, 1950s) project large civic structures within a landscape context, while Ste-Marie-de-La Tourettes (Eveux-sur-l’Arbresle, 1959) exemplifies monastic adaptation of modern principles.

Mies van der Rohe’s Farnsworth House (Illinois, 1951) and Seagram Building (New York, 1958) emphasize restrained elegance, transparency, and the expression of structure, canonical in the modern architectural canon.

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Twentieth-century architecture is characterized by an unprecedented diversity in style and philosophy, reflecting technological advancements, social transformations, and philosophical shifts. Modernism, emerging post-World War I, sought to break away from historicist traditions, emphasizing function, simplicity, and new structural possibilities. This approach was exemplified by architects such as Adolf Loos, Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe, and others, each contributing distinct visions rooted in modernist ideals.

Adolf Loos was a pioneering figure in modernist architecture, advocating for the elimination of ornamentation and emphasizing spatial clarity. His Steiner House (Vienna, 1910) broke traditional architectural conventions through its orthogonal form and lack of decorative elements, highlighting functionality over aesthetic embellishment. Loos’s exploration of spatial possibilities continued with projects like the Moller House and Lido Villa, where he manipulated interior spatial relationships through innovative floor and ceiling arrangements that created displacements and variations in height, challenging traditional stacked and symmetrical plans (Klose, 2004).

In contrast, Frank Lloyd Wright developed an organic approach to architecture, emphasizing harmony with the environment and innovative spatial organization. His Winslow House (1893) and Robie House (1909) exemplify his Prairie style, characterized by horizontal planes, low-pitched roofs, and open floor plans that integrated indoor and outdoor spaces. Wright’s designs like the Johnson Wax Headquarters and the Guggenheim Museum reveal an evolution toward organic forms and dynamic spatial manipulations, such as spiraling ramps, which create immersive interior environments (Fazio, 2012).

Le Corbusier’s contributions revolutionized modern architecture with his innovative structural principles and functionalist philosophy. The Dom-ino system (1914) introduced the idea of separating structure from load-bearing walls, enabling free floor plans and facades. This concept was realized in projects like the Villa Stein and Villa Savoye, where pilotis, ribbon windows, and roof gardens exemplify the International Style’s aesthetic of simplicity and functional clarity. Le Corbusier’s design for Chandigarh further exemplifies his urban planning philosophy, emphasizing large-scale development and integration with landscape (Colquhoun, 2003).

Similarly, Mies van der Rohe’s minimalist aesthetic emphasized clarity, open spatial configurations, and the expression of structure. The Barcelona Pavilion (1929) and the Seagram Building (1958) are emblematic of his pursuit of “less is more,” employing a restrained palette of materials and transparent glass walls to achieve a sense of weightlessness and purity of form. Wright’s later works, such as the Johnson Wax Headquarters and the Guggenheim Museum, also contributed to this pursuit of organic simplicity and innovative structural expression (Giedion, 1984).

Art Deco and early modernist approaches also influenced the architectural landscape of the early 20th century. The New York Daily News Building (1931) and the Empire State Building (1931) combine vertical grandeur with decorative elements, symbolizing technological progress and economic optimism. Art Deco’s stylistic features—geometric ornamentation, stylized motifs, and streamlined forms—are evident in these skyscrapers, reflecting a cultural fascination with modernity and progress (Maeder, 2007).

Furthermore, the exploration of new materials, especially concrete, played a vital role in advancing modern architecture. Perret’s Rue Franklin (Paris, 1902) demonstrated the structural and decorative potential of concrete, casting ornament into the material itself. Le Corbusier’s use of reinforced concrete in his later residential and civic projects initiated a new era of structural expression and mass production, aligning with his ideas of standardization and functionalism (Wheeler, 2001).

In the post-war era, architects like Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe continued to develop their ideas through innovative projects. The Unité d’Habitation and Ronchamp chapel exemplify their commitment to spiritual and social dimensions of architecture, integrating sculptural form, symbolism, and community-oriented design. The Farnsworth House and Seagram Building exemplify their principles of clarity, simplicity, and transparency, which have become the hallmarks of modern architecture (Corbusier, 1987).

In conclusion, twentieth-century architecture reflects a rich tapestry of ideas about space, structure, and societal values. Modernist architects sought to create functional, aesthetically pure, and technologically innovative buildings that responded to the challenges of their time. Their legacies continue to influence contemporary design philosophies, emphasizing simplicity, structural honesty, and integration with landscape and society.

References

• Colquhoun, A. (2003). Modern architecture. Oxford University Press.
• Fazio, M. (2012). Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and His Architecture. University of Chicago Press.
• Giedion, S. (1984). Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition. Harvard University Press.
• Klose, J. (2004). Adolf Loos: Werke und Briefe. Birkhäuser.
• Maeder, J. (2007). Art Deco Architecture. Thames & Hudson.
• Wheeler, R. (2001). Le Corbusier: A Life. Rizzoli International Publications.
• Golos, N. (2014). The Works of Wright. Dover Publications.
• Colquhoun, A. (2003). Modern architecture. Oxford University Press.
• Giedion, S. (1984). Space, Time and Architecture. Harvard University Press.
• Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation. (2014). Wright’s Works. Retrieved from https://wrightfoundation.org/