Chapter 12: Drugs, Drug Analysis, And Forensic Toxicology
Chapter 12drugs And Drug Analysis Andforensic Toxicologynature Of Drug
Chapter 12drugs And Drug Analysis Andforensic Toxicologynature Of Drug
Chapter 12drugs And Drug Analysis Andforensic Toxicologynature Of Drug
Chapter 12 Drugs and Drug Analysis and Forensic Toxicology Nature of Drugs and Drug Abuse Major Classes of Abused Drugs Controlled Substance Laws Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory Forensic Toxicology – Antemortem and Postmortem Alcohol and Drugs and Driving I. Nature of Drugs and Drug Abuse 1. Working Definition of a Drug: A drug is any substance that produces physiological or psychological change within a short period of time after ingestion and from a easily ingested dose 2. Nature of Drug Dependence: Drug dependence is when an individual becomes strongly attached to a drug Dependency is subdivided into two categories: physiological and psychological I. Nature of Drugs and Drug Abuse 2a. Physiological Dependence: With physiological dependence, there is a need by the body to have the drug present A person experiences sickness if they stop taking the drug 2b. Psychological Dependence: A person develops an uncontrollable “craving†(mental or emotional need) for a drug The craving is a desperate need to continue I. Nature of Drugs and Drug Abuse Drugs and Society - Controlled Substances: Access to drugs is regulated by the Federal Controlled Substances Act and by State Acts in all 50 States The Drug Enforcement Administration of the US DOJ administers the Controlled Substances Act Society through its laws tries to control the abuse of drugs Forensic science laboratories are involved with cases where drugs have been abused II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs Drugs of abuse can be divided into six basic categories Narcotic Drugs – taken to dull pain (analgesic) Stimulants – taken to increase mental and physical energy Hallucinogens – taken to change one’s mental state Depressants, Hypnotics, & Tranquilizers – taken to dull one’s senses, to reduce anxiety, or induce sleep Club Drugs – taken to enhance one’s enjoyment of a party or other social activities Performance Enhancing Drugs – taken to build muscles, endurance, or enhance athletic performance II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs 1. Opiates or Narcotic Drugs: Narcotic drugs are painkillers (analgesics) Morphine is a narcotic and the primary active drug in opium, the dried sap of the opium poppy plant Opium can be smoked directly or chemically processed to isolate pure morphine All natural and drug compounds derived from opium are known as opiates II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs Opiates are psychologically addictive drugs, with withdrawal causing severe physiological symptoms Codeine is the second most plentiful chemical component of opium, used as a strong painkiller and cough suppressant Heroin, a derivative of morphine is at least as addictive as morphine Synthetic painkillers include Darvon & Demerol II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs 2. Stimulants: Stimulants are taken to make one feel more energetic, strong, or awake Amphetamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine are examples of abused stimulants Methamphetamine is the drug most commonly produced in clandestine labs II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs Cocaine is a very powerful stimulant and is enormously psychologically addicting Cocaine hydrochloride is usually inhaled through the nose Cocaine in its free base form, “crackâ€, is vaporized by heat in a pipe and inhaled into the lungs II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs 3. Hallucinogens: Are taken to cause a significantly altered mental state, often including hallucinations Marijuana is one of the oldest The physiologically active ingredients are known as cannabinoids, found in the resinous leaf coating of Cannabis sativa The most active cannabinoid is THC II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs Hashish is another form of marijuana, traditionally a more potent form, made from the flowering tops of the plant Hash oil is made by taking the plant material and cooking it with a solvent to remove the plant resin The solvent is then evaporated leaving a thick oily material which is almost pure resin The concentrated hash oil can be mixed with tobacco or other vegetable material II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs LSD is an extremely potent hallucinogen The normal dose is only 30-50 micrograms Causes visual hallucinations, brilliant colors, and the perception that one is wise PCP or “angel dust†is another popular hallucinogen PCP is fairly simple to make, with the vast majority made in clandestine labs II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs Naturally occurring hallucinogens include peyote, the bud of a particular cactus The main active ingredient in peyote is “mescaline†Magic mushrooms are mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe, which contains two active components, psilocin and psilocybin II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs 4. Depressants, Hypnotics, & Tranquilizers: Alcohol, a depressant, is the most abused drug in the Western world Barbiturates are highly physiologically active depressants, resulting in a physical & mental state similar to alcohol-induced intoxication Valium, a benzodiazepine, is a tranquilizer drug designed to relieve anxiety Rohypnol or “roofies†is a benzodiazepine and a major drug of abuse at raves and the club scene II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs 5. Club Drugs: MDMA, the “love drug†or “Ecstasy†is either prepared by clandestine labs, or obtained legally from other countries GHB, gamma hydroxybutyrate, is synthesized in clandestine labs or diverted from legal production GHB and related compound GBL, are used for their hypnotic or depressant effects II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs Ketamine, is an anesthetic and animal tranquilizer that can cause anterograde amnesia, the loss of memory while under its influence Rohypnol, GHB, and ketamine have been implicated in cases of drug-facilitated sexual assaults, thus also known as “date-rape†drugs II. Major Classes of Abused Drugs 6. Athletic Performance Enhancers: Athletes trying to gain a competitive edge may abuse stimulants and painkillers The first drug controlled because of their abuse by athletes were anabolic steroids Anabolic steroids promote cell growth resulting in growth of muscle tissue and sometimes bone size and strength III. Controlled Substance Laws A controlled substance is a drug named in either federal or state statutes that is illegal to possess except when prescribed by a physician The federal government has created 5 controlled substance schedules, based on their potential for abuse and medical value No medical use (heroin, LSD, marijuana) Some medical use (Cocaine, morphine) Anabolic steroids are placed in this schedule Has most of the tranquilizers & many diet drugs Exempt preparations: e.g. cough syrup with codeine IV. Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory Screening tests: Drug test kits are packets used by police officers in the field to screen for drugs The tests are simple to perform and based on color changes A small amount of drug is added to the pouch, a sealed ampoule(s) is then broken to release a chemical reagent, mixed, and the color change noted IV. Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory The screening tests are important for establishing probable cause when making a drug possession arrest However, the screening tests are not a substitute for laboratory analysis Commonly used screening tests are: The Scott test for cocaine The Duquenois-Levine test for marijuana The Marquis test for opiates The Van Erk test for many hallucinogenic drugs IV. Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory Isolation and Separation: Steps may include an initial microscopic examination to determine the number of materials that may be present A purification step to separate the controlled substance from other materials, such as diluents (materials added to a drug to give bulk/volume) A liquid-liquid extraction or various types of chromatography are commonly used separation techniques IV. Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory Microcrystal Tests: A confirmatory test that can be used directly with street drug samples is the microcrystal test The test is performed by taking a small amount of drug, placing it on a microscope slide and adding a drop of reagent The shape (morphology) of the crystal formed is characteristic for that particular drug and reagent The tests are rapid and specific IV. Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory Chromatography (Separations): Chromatography is a process that separates a mixture of different compounds Separation is achieved by the differences in the partitioning of compounds between two phases: a moving phase and a stationary phase Chromatography provides tentative identification, based on retention time (GC) or distance traveled (TLC) IV. Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory Spectroscopy/Spectrometry: Spectroscopy refers to the interaction of electro-magnetic radiation with a chemical to give a pattern (spectrum) characteristic of that material’s interaction with the radiation Mass spectroscopy (MS) or infrared spectroscopy (IR) are excellent ways to identify drugs IV. Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory Spectroscopy/Spectrometry: Spectroscopic methods work best with samples that are relatively pure, thus often combined with gas chromatography (GC-MS; GC-IR) The combination of liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC-MS) provides a retention time along with a spectrum for unambiguous identification IV. Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory Qualitative versus Quantitative Analysis: Qualitative analysis means determining whether something is there or not there With most drug laws, a qualitative identification is all that is necessary (“aggregate weight based lawâ€) Quantitative analysis indicates how much of that sample is made up of a controlled substance (percentage of the total for each controlled substance present in a sample) V. Forensic Toxicology Antemortem and Postmortem Forensic toxicologists receive blood, urine or body tissue for analysis Toxicologists must be able to analyze small amounts of drug and isolate them from a complex biological matrix In contrast to the work typically done by drug chemists, a toxicologists needs quantitative information in order to determine if the amount is consistent with a therapeutic dose or an abuse dosage Toxicologists must aid others in understanding the effects of the substance on the human body Samples from living individuals (antemortem) and deceased (postmortem) are received for analysis V. Forensic Toxicology Antemortem and Postmortem Sample Analysis: A number of laws and rules have to do with the workplace use of drugs Urine specimens from random drug testing are sent to the forensic lab for toxicology analysis Forensic Toxicology labs also test for the presence of certain drugs in victims of sexual assault, who may have been drugged as an adjunct to the assault V. Forensic Toxicology Antemortem and Postmortem Postmortem Sample Analysis: Medical examiners are responsible for determining the cause and manner of sudden, suspicious, or unattended death Postmortem toxicology is done to assist the medical examiner with this determination Toxicologist’s work is complicated by the limited amount of drug in the body and by the natural process of metabolism The toxicologist looks for both the drug itself and the metabolites V. Forensic Toxicology Antemortem and Postmortem Classes of Poisons: The presence of poisons in the body may be critical to law enforcement or public health investigations Three basic groups of poisons: Inorganic (arsenic, cadmium, cyanide) Organic (strychnine, curare, digitalis) Biological (venoms, botulism, tetradotoxin) VI. Alcohol and Drugs and Driving Driving While Impaired by Alcohol: Alcohol is one of the easiest substances for toxicologists to find in the body fluids, due to the high dose and its chemical volatility There is a good correlation between the amount of alcohol in the blood and the level of impairment Laws define the level of alcohol above which a person would be considered impaired for the purpose of operating a motor vehicle Most states have defined the limit to be 0.08% w/v (80 mg ethanol/100 ml of blood) VI. Alcohol and Drugs and Driving In the field, alcohol levels are determined by capturing a known volume of a person’s breath using the Breathalyzer or Intoxilyzer instruments Alcohol levels in the breath can be correlated to levels in the blood In the lab, blood samples are subjected to alcohol determinations using the GC VI. Alcohol and Drugs and Driving Other Drugs and Driving: All states have laws against driving while impaired by drugs besides alcohol Charges are supported primarily by behavioral observations, but laboratory analysis showing a significant level of a drug is almost always required for successful prosecution Prohibited levels for each drug have not been developed and placed into state laws as with alcohol The Community College of Baltimore County School of Business, Criminal Justice and Law Criminalistics CRJU 112 Module 12: Drugs and Drug Analysis and Forensic Technology Module Introduction Module 12 covers the analyses performed by the forensic laboratories in the US of controlled substances.
The substances examined, generally referred to as drugs, are substances that produce physiological or psychological effects on the body. The major classes of drugs of abuse are narcotics, stimulants, hallucinogens, depressants / hypnotics / tranquilizers, club drugs, and performance-enhancing drugs. Also discussed is toxicology, which is a separate discipline from drug chemistry, analyzing biological samples for the presence of toxins, controlled substance, or drugs. Module Objectives 1. State what makes a substance a drug.
2. Understand the nature of drug dependency and its two major forms. 3. Identify each of the major classes of abused drugs, with examples. 4.
Processing of suspected controlled substances samples through the crime lab. 5. Outline the analytical steps from initial physical description to unambiguous identification. 6. Explain the analysis of body fluid and tissue samples for drugs and poisons (forensic toxicology).
7. Describe the critical role the forensic toxicologist plays in alcohol and drug impaired driving cases. Learning Activities Address the following learning activities for successful completion of this module: · Read Chapter 12 (pp. ). · Review the video titled Toxicology ( ) This video can also be found in the Course Video folder in the Course Menu. · Read the following documents NIJ - Forensic Toxicology ( Briefing: What is Forensic Toxicology ( · Review the Power Points for Chapter 12. Watch the following video titled Complete the following writing assignments: Part A.) Answer the following Review Questions (short answer) on page 337: 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7 (worth up to 10 points). Part B.) Answer the Fill-in-the-Blank & Multiple-choice Questions 1 through 5 on page 337 (worth up to 10 points). ( HINT : For Q.
1 it is not caffeine.) Part C.) After viewing the video and reading the documents listed above, describe in paragraph form, the job responsibilities of a forensic toxicologist (worth up to 10 points). Note: You can also research this topic in your textbook and other sources online. Do not cut and paste; describe the job responsibilities of the forensic toxicologist in your own words. Other resources to help with the above assignment: Forensic Science - Toxicology and Drugs ( Forensic Toxicology - An Introduction ( Forensic Toxicology ( SUBMISSION INSTRUCTIONS: Save your work on your computer using a file name that you will remember for the work associated with this module (for example, Module 11).
Once you have saved your work to your computer, submit your work to the Assignment Box. 1
Paper For Above instruction
The analysis of drugs and forensic toxicology plays a crucial role in criminal justice, public health, and safety. Drugs are substances that produce physiological or psychological changes shortly after ingestion and are classified into major categories such as narcotics, stimulants, hallucinogens, depressants, club drugs, and performance-enhancing drugs. Understanding these classifications helps law enforcement and forensic laboratories to identify and control their abuse.
The nature of drug dependence is complex, involving physiological and psychological components. Physiological dependence occurs when the body requires a drug to avoid sickness, while psychological dependence manifests as uncontrollable cravings driven by mental or emotional needs. These dependencies emphasize the importance of strict regulation and monitoring of controlled substances, which are classified under federal and state laws with specific schedules based on their potential for abuse and medical utility (U.S. DEA, 2020).
Major classes of abused drugs include narcotics such as morphine, heroin, and codeine; stimulants like cocaine, methamphetamine, and amphetamine; hallucinogens including LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, and cannabis derivatives; depressants like alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines; club drugs such as MDMA (Ecstasy), GHB, ketamine, and Rohypnol; and performance-enhancing drugs primarily anabolic steroids. Each class has distinct chemical properties and methods of abuse, requiring specific laboratory analyses for identification.
In forensic laboratories, the initial step in drug analysis involves screening tests, which provide preliminary indications of drug presence based on color reactions (e.g., Scott test for cocaine, Duquenois-Levine for marijuana). These rapid tests, while useful for establishing probable cause, are supplemented by confirmatory procedures such as chromatography—like gas chromatography (GC) and thin-layer chromatography (TLC)—which separate components based on their affinity to stationary phases. Spectroscopic methods, including mass spectrometry (MS) and infrared (IR) spectroscopy, are employed to unambiguously identify substances by analyzing their interaction with electromagnetic radiation (Sprenger & Passarelli, 2021).
The forensic toxicologist’s role extends beyond identification. They analyze biological samples, such as blood, urine, or tissues, both from living individuals (antemortem) and deceased persons (postmortem). Their work is crucial in criminal cases involving impaired driving, sexual assaults, and accidental overdoses. Toxicologists must quantify drug levels to determine whether the substances found in samples are within therapeutic ranges or indicate abuse or overdose (Lloyd & Saini, 2019).
Postmortem toxicology helps determine cause of death by assessing drug concentrations and metabolites, which can be complicated by natural metabolic processes and decomposition. For example, the presence of certain poisons, such as inorganic poisons like arsenic or cyanide, organic poisons like strychnine, or biological toxins from venoms, can be especially critical in investigations of suspicious deaths. The toxicologist’s findings assist medical examiners in establishing a cause of death and linking substance use to criminal or accidental causes.
The role of forensic toxicology is particularly significant in cases of impairment while driving. Alcohol remains the most detected substance, as it is easily measurable in blood and breath samples. Laws typically specify a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limit, such as 0.08%, above which an individual is considered impaired (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2022). Toxicologists employ breath analysis devices like Breathalyzers and laboratory techniques like gas chromatography to accurately determine blood alcohol levels.
Beyond alcohol, many other drugs can impair driving skills. Law enforcement relies on behavioral observations supported by laboratory evidence to prosecute drug