Chapter 2 Language Wright W E 2019 Foundations For Teaching

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What do teachers need to know about language, and why do they need to know it? How can knowledge of language help teachers to “think linguistically” about their students, curriculum, and classroom instruction? What does it mean to “know a language”? What do teachers need to know about language for academic or disciplinary purposes? This chapter explores the components of language knowledge—including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and lexicon—and emphasizes the importance of teachers understanding these aspects to support student learning, especially for English Language Learners (ELLs). It discusses how teachers can develop linguistic awareness to better interpret student errors, scaffold language acquisition, and design effective instruction tailored to diverse language needs. The chapter also highlights the roles teachers play as communicators, social agents, educators, and evaluators, asserting that understanding language is essential across all these functions, not only for ELL instruction but for general teaching practice. It addresses the concept of “knowing a language” in terms of communicative competence, including grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, and intercultural competencies, all crucial for effective academic and social communication. Furthermore, it examines language variation, bilingualism, translanguaging, and academic language, emphasizing that teachers need a nuanced understanding of these areas to support students’ full participation and success in school. Finally, it ties language knowledge to standards such as CCSS and WIDA, underscoring the importance of linguistic proficiency for academic achievement and preparing students for college and career readiness.

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Understanding what teachers need to know about language is fundamental to effective teaching, especially in increasingly diverse classrooms that include English Language Learners (ELLs). Teachers’ linguistic knowledge encompasses an understanding of the structure, use, and contextual variations of language, which are vital for supporting both language development and content mastery. This essay explores the key components of language that teachers should master, the significance of thinking linguistically, and how this knowledge informs classroom instruction and student learning outcomes.

At the core of linguistic knowledge lies phonology—the study of sound systems in language. Teachers should understand how phonemes, the smallest units of sound, influence pronunciation and meaning. For example, differentiating between /b/ and /p/ can be critical in helping students acquire correct pronunciation and comprehension. Regional accents and pronunciation issues are also rooted in phonological differences, which teachers need to recognize and address sensitively. Morphology, the study of word formation, helps teachers understand how words are built from morphemes—the smallest units of meaning or grammatical function. For instance, understanding inflectional morphology (e.g., fast, faster, fastest) and derivational morphology (e.g., represent, representation) enables teachers to guide students in developing vocabulary and understanding the internal structure of words.

Syntactic knowledge—grammar—is essential for understanding how words combine to form sentences. Teachers need to recognize syntactic differences across languages, which often cause grammatical errors among ELLs, and use this understanding to provide targeted grammar instruction. Semantics, the study of meaning, informs teachers about the relationships between words and concepts, leading to more effective vocabulary instruction and comprehension. Pragmatics, on the other hand, involves the social rules of language use, including conversation management, politeness, and contextual appropriateness, which are critical for social integration and pragmatic competence in academic settings.

Lexicon refers to the vocabulary of a language; teachers should be aware that English-speaking children typically develop around 6,000 words by second grade and can acquire thousands more through natural exposure. For ELLs, vocabulary size directly correlates with their ability to participate academically. Teachers can support vocabulary growth through explicit instruction, contextual learning, and culturally responsive practices. Furthermore, understanding spelling patterns rooted in the history of the English language helps teachers decode the orthographic system, facilitating better reading and writing skills.

Language variation, bilingualism, and translanguaging are also important considerations. Recognizing dialectal differences, such as African American Vernacular English, and respecting home language varieties foster positive linguistic identities and mitigate stigma. Translingual practices—using the full linguistic repertoire of bilingual students—allow teachers to leverage students’ language resources for learning. Cummins’ framework differentiates between Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), highlighting that ELLs often need several years to develop academic language skills necessary for complex tasks like analyzing texts or writing essays. Teachers must understand these distinctions to provide appropriate scaffolds and assessments.

Furthermore, academic language functions—such as analyzing, inferring, and synthesizing—are central to content-area success. The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and WIDA emphasize that language development should focus on enabling students to communicate ideas, solve problems, and participate fully in academic discourse. Teachers, therefore, must be familiar with the specific language demands of different subjects and tasks to support ELLs effectively. For instance, understanding that a science task requires comparing and analyzing data informs the instructional approach.

Effective teachers also recognize the importance of sociocultural aspects of language use, including register and genre, which vary across social contexts. Recognizing discourse differences—such as formal writing versus casual conversation—helps teachers scaffold students’ participation across academic and social domains. Additionally, being aware of language ideologies—the beliefs and attitudes about language—affects how teachers respond to language diversity and supports equitable instruction. This awareness counters deficit views of nonstandard English varieties and promotes linguistic justice.

Knowledge of bilingualism and translanguaging further enhances instruction. Bilingual students do not operate with separate language systems but draw on a complex, fluid linguistic repertoire. Teachers equipped with translanguaging strategies can validate and utilize students’ language practices to facilitate content learning and literacy development. Understanding that language proficiency develops over time, especially in academic contexts, teachers should prioritize meaningful, contextually grounded vocabulary and literacy instruction rather than rigid language tests.

In conclusion, the scope of knowledge teachers need about language is comprehensive and multifaceted. From phonology to pragmatics, understanding how language functions in various contexts equips teachers to identify student needs, address errors, and scaffold learning effectively. Recognizing language variation, bilingualism, and academic language demands enables educators to create inclusive, responsive learning environments that promote linguistic and content mastery. As standards like CCSS and WIDA extend their focus on language skills for academic success, teachers must continuously develop their linguistic awareness and pedagogical strategies to ensure that all students can meet the language requirements of their education and future careers.

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