Chapter 4 Policy Adoption: Introduction ✓ Solved

Chapter 4 Policy Adoption 1 Introduction Policy adoption:

Policy adoption involves action on a preferred alternative that can win approval. The adoption process grants legitimacy to the policy and gives it the weight of public authority.

The formal authority to decide rests with public officials: legislators, executives, administrators, and judges.

Today’s topics include decision-making theories, criteria, styles, and presidential decision-making.

Theories of Decision-Making

The three main theories of decision-making are Rational-Comprehensive, Incrementalism, and Mixed Scanning. Each entails an empirical description (how decisions are made) and a normative statement (how they should be made).

Rational-Comprehensive Theory

This theory specifies procedures for making well-considered decisions, where the goal is to maximize the attainment of goals, either personal or organizational. It is not the same as rational choice theory.

Rational decisions can lead to either large and basic or limited changes in public policies.

However, there are criticisms of the rational-comprehensive theory, including that decision-makers do not always face clearly defined problems, lack the required intellectual capacity, are often confronted by value conflict, face “sunk costs,” and are not unitary actors.

Incremental Theory

Incrementalism involves making limited changes or additions to existing policies. It is easier to reach an agreement between parties when only minor changes to existing programs are made, and sequences of incremental changes can lead to fundamental transformations in public policy.

This theory is prevalent in pluralist societies like the United States.

However, there are criticisms of incremental theory as well: it is too conservative, often focused on the existing order, does not account for crises, and may discourage the search for alternative solutions.

Mixed Scanning Approach

The mixed scanning approach incorporates both rational-comprehensive and incremental processes, allowing decision-makers to utilize either method based on circumstances. It also acknowledges the differing capacities of decision-makers.

Decision Criteria

Decision-making can be either an individual or collective process influenced by various factors, including values, party affiliation, constituency interests, public opinion, and deference to others.

Values

Values include organizational, professional, personal, and ideological factors which often play a role in decision-making.

Political Party Affiliation

Party loyalty serves as the best predictor of how members of Congress will vote on legislation, influencing the actions of federal judges as well.

Constituency Interests

Agencies have constituencies that consist of various interest groups, and decision-makers must consider these interests when making choices.

Public Opinion

Public perspectives on policy issues shape the direction of public policy and can be manipulated by public officials through news management.

Deference

Decision-makers often defer to the judgment of those with more experience, which can include legislators, party leaders, committee chairs, and policy experts.

Decision Rules

Rules such as "stare decisis" (let the precedents stand) and "per se" (as such) govern how decisions are made.

Science

Science has become an increasingly important consideration in decision-making, especially in uncertain situations where more research is needed.

Public Interest

The public interest serves as another criterion for decision-making, though it can be challenging to define as private and public interests are not always mutually exclusive.

Styles of Decision-Making

Three key styles are identified in the decision-making process: bargaining, persuasion, and command.

Bargaining

Bargaining is the most common form of decision-making where parties adjust their goals to form an acceptable course of action for all involved.

Persuasion

Persuasion seeks to build support without changing positions through factual arguments and logical reasoning.

Command

Command represents the ability of those in superior positions to make binding decisions.

Presidential Decision-Making

Presidents serve as policy adopters and have the authority to recognize foreign governments, establish diplomatic relations, and execute treaties through executive agreements and orders.

Recent executive orders illustrate the decision-making authority of the executive office, which is shaped by factors such as legality, available resources, time constraints, previous commitments, and available information.

Conclusion

Understanding the process of policy adoption, the theories behind decision-making, the different criteria and styles, and the role of presidential authority are crucial for grasping how policies are formed and enacted within a public context.

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