Chapter 4: Systems And Critical Approaches To Organizations

Chapter 4systems And Critical Approaches To Organizational Communica

Consideration of the organismic metaphor Understanding organizations from a systems perspective Use a radical frame of reference to look at how critical approaches view organizations as sites of domination Systems Approaches Systems approaches take a more macro view of organizations, emphasizing the permeable nature of organizational boundaries Systems approaches to understanding organizations use this general idea to examine the component parts of an organization and how they work together to keep an organization “alive†General Systems Theory Ludwig von Bertalanffy suggested systems concepts for a variety of disciplines “Novel developments†include: Hierarchical order Entropy Control mechanisms Open systems 4 Cybernetics Norbert Wiener’s contribution, from the Greek word for “steersman†Control and communication theory that examines both machine and animal Especially important to studying organizational communication: System goals Feedback Entropy Gestalt (nonsummativity) The Process of Organizing Karl Weick’s definition of organizations includes: Equivocality Interdependence In his book Making Sense of the Organization (2001) Weick states that he views “organizations as collections of people trying to make sense of what is happening around them†(p.

5) Chaos and Complexity Theories Used in mathematics to help explain random occurrences Represents the collapse of order in the status quo Chaotic behavior can appear random but can be defined mathematically Complexity theory suggests nature is incredibly complex but is a result of underlying simplicity The Organization as a System The component parts and environment of a system interact in a way that can be studied and understood Parts are interdependent or naturally reliant on one another Inputs: incoming information Throughputs: assimilation of that information Outputs: end results of throughput decisions Critical Thinking Questions – Systems Characteristics In what ways do you use feedback to make changes in your life?

Does the quality of input affect the quality of the output in an organizational system? Organizational System Characteristics General terms of systems properties include: Holism: system is more than just the sum of its parts Nonsummative: results are more than simply adding together each piece Equifinality: reaching the same final state from differing initial conditions; variety of paths Entropy: process of degeneration Typical of closed systems Negative entropy: flow of information from external environment; leads to growth and sustainability Typical of open systems Subsystems and Suprasystems Departments in an organization need to be aware of what is happening in other departments There are 10 common characteristics of open systems highlighted by Katz and Kahn (1978) Feedback: reaction or response to a process System goals: results for which energies and efforts of a system are exerted Hierarchical order: organized system of ranking Critical Approaches Based on the work of Karl Marx, critical theory examines organizations from the perspective of oppression Critical Thinking Questions – Oppression What are some classic examples of oppression and domination throughout history?

In what ways do we still see some of those examples being reenacted in organizations today? Producing Dissensus Critical theorists seek to reveal how social an technological structures of organizations serve to oppress workers and create sites of domination A way to free employees from dominant restraint Karl Marx suggested a major imbalance between owners and workers in a capitalistic society Purpose of critical theory is to emancipate the oppressed Feminist Perspective Critique the marginalization and domination of women in the workplace Developed from the women’s liberation movement Calls for the abolishment of a patriarchal society Dominant and privileged male voices have limited the advancement of women and minority groups in the workplace Case Study: Pine Ridge Indian Reservation Pine Ridge Indian Reservation is one of the poorest Native American reservations in the United States Barren land and few jobs Those who live there have passively supported goals of the U.S. government, even when not in their best interests If they develop a sense of hopelessness and accept their situation, they would be experiencing hegemony Is there a way for the inhabitants of the reservation to avoid a hegemonic situation?

Hegemony and Domination Any organization can develop a hegemonic environment (intentionally or unintentionally) Some examples of ways power can be used to subordinate workers includes: Control of resources Control of technology Exertion of formal authority Control of production Control of information Critical Thinking Questions – Control What are some other forms of control in organizations? Will opportunities for such control increase or decrease as newer forms of organizing continue to take shape? Control Communication is a major mode for exerting control Critical theorists have helped to expose instances of organizational sites of domination and resistance Organizational Justice The perception of what is fair and equitable in the workplace Distributive justice: perceived fairness of amount and allocation of rewards or outcomes Procedural justice: perceived fairness of process used to determine distribution of rewards Interactional justice: perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity, concern, respect Certified B-Corporation New form of organizing emerging in the United States Committed to conducting business that is profitable and considers the impact on employees, community, and environment Triple bottom line: people, planet, profit Context Matters For-Profit Organization Large corporations can adjust overall system to compensate for divisions that are struggling Entrepreneurship – Small Businesses Struggling parts of a small system felt more quickly Nonprofit Organizations Negative press for partners can affect nonprofits Government Sector Change to one component can lead to systemic changes Chapter 5: Cultural Approaches to Organizational Communication Introduction Culture affects communication Culture can create barriers that prevent us from understanding others Ideologies and paradigms guide our thinking and impact our understanding of the world around us Case Study: Avianca Flight 052 Avianca Flight 52 was flying from Columbia to New York Due to poor weather, the flight had been repeatedly held up, leaving both pilots panicking about fuel levels After Air Traffic Control again told them to wait, the pilots did not question the command After running out of gas, the plane crashed, killing half of the passengers What cultural dimensions may have influenced this event?

Defining Culture The acquired learning of a group that gives its members a sense of who they are, of belonging, and works to make that group recognizably different from other groups Organizational culture is very similar to traditional culture in that it provides a system of shared values, beliefs, and holds meaning to employees Globalization and Culture Globalization has a tremendous impact on the way we communicate between and within organizations Geert Hofstede (2001) created a model of five dimensions that act as a broad framework for understanding the cultural differences between nations Power distance Individualism/collectivism Uncertainty avoidance Long-term vs. short-term orientation Masculinity and femininity Case Study: The New Job and Organizational Culture Zeb served for five years as the branch manager of an established local bank Zeb always adhered to the rules of operation that governed customer and employee expectations Though satisfied with his job, Zeb took an opportunity to work at Google Zeb was startled by the very different culture of Google’s expansive office complex, group lunches, opportunities for innovation and creativity, and flexible work hours Why is a workplace like Google so appealing to many?

Organizational Culture Defining organizational features of a company, that separates that company from others in terms of operations, employee relationships, and interorganizational behavior Moving from one organization to another can prove difficult when the organizational cultures are vastly different Substantial differences can cause culture shock in new employees Work Environment Characteristics of the work environment are dictated by organizational culture Expectations of time When does the business day begin and end? How many hours and days of the week are expected? Expectations for dress What is appropriate for the workplace? Expectations of communication behaviors Southwest Airlines – fun and hard work Critical Thinking Questions - Environment What are the time expectations for your classes?

What are the dress expectations at your institution? What are the behavioral expectations at your institution? Organizational Commitment Commitment to organizations is changing, as college students now average over 10 job changes in their lifetime Different generations experience different life conditions, which influences commitment to the job Increasing choices and opportunities impact our lives in many ways, including careers Organizational Identity Core aspects of an organization’s culture include: Innovation and risk-taking Attention to detail Outcome orientation People orientation Team orientation Aggressiveness Stability Organizational Subcultures Cultures are not always uniform in organizations Subcultures have unique values, attributes, or behaviors According to Schein (1983), organizational cultures become . . . a pattern of assumptions that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel . . .†(p.

14) Critical Thinking Questions – Subcultures What are some examples of subcultures at your institution? How do those subcultures still maintain their organizational identity? Changing Organizational Culture Is it possible to “make†organizational change happen? Material symbols, rituals, and even specific language used by an organization can be used to reinforce, differentiate, and strengthen culture Strong organizational cultures are pervasive but knowing when to adapt and change the organizational culture to better fit the competitive environment is sometimes difficult Paradigm Shifts & Organizational Culture Defined as a set of rules and regulations, paradigms do two things: Establish and define boundaries Tell employees how to behave inside those boundaries to be successful Paradigms are effective at standardizing interactions, but can become a hindrance if they prevent organizations from seeing opportunities outside that specific thought pattern At the individual level, paradigms can interfere with our ability to see the value in other cultures, both ethnic and organizational Critical Thinking Questions - Paradigms How do your paradigms help navigate your everyday lives, and how can they hinder you?

How do your paradigms influence your communication styles and behaviors? Context Matters Consider the implications of organizational culture in the context of these different types of industry segments: For-profit organizations Entrepreneurship – small business Nonprofit organizations Government sector

Paper For Above instruction

Chapter 4systems And Critical Approaches To Organizational Communica

The study of organizational communication is deeply rooted in various theoretical frameworks that seek to understand how organizations function, communicate, and maintain their systems. Among these, systems theory provides a macro perspective, emphasizing the interconnectedness of organizational parts and their environment. This approach views organizations as living entities, composed of interdependent components that work together to sustain the organization’s life cycle. Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s General Systems Theory introduced key concepts such as hierarchical order, entropy, control mechanisms, and open systems, which have been instrumental in shaping modern understanding of organizational processes (Bertalanffy, 1968). Cybernetics, notably developed by Norbert Wiener, further refined these ideas by focusing on feedback and control processes that regulate both machine and biological systems, offering valuable insights into organizational feedback loops and goal regulation (Wiener, 1961).

Weick’s process-oriented view broadens this perspective by emphasizing the interpretive nature of organizations, where sensemaking and equivocality are central. Weick (2001) describes organizations as collections of individuals striving to understand their environment, highlighting the importance of interdependence and ongoing interpretation. Chaos and complexity theories extend these ideas, illustrating how seemingly random or chaotic behavior can, underpinned by simplicity, give organizations resilience or lead to collapse, depending on their adaptability (Miller & Page, 2007). These concepts underscore the dynamic and unpredictable nature of organizational systems.

Critical approaches, rooted in Marxist theory, scrutinize power, oppression, and domination within organizations. Critical theorists argue that organizations often function as sites of social control and repression, maintaining oppressive structures that benefit owners and managerial elites at the expense of workers (Marx, 1867; Habermas, 1984). They seek to uncover mechanisms of control, such as control of resources, technology, information, and formal authority, that perpetuate inequalities. For example, Hegemony, a concept from Gramsci, describes the subtle domination that sustains ideological conformity, often without overt force (Gramsci, 1971).

Feminist critical theory adds another layer by challenging gendered hierarchies and advocating for equal representation and voice in organizational decision-making (Millett, 1970). The case of Pine Ridge Indian Reservation exemplifies how marginal groups can be subjected to hegemonic control, leading to passive acceptance of their marginalization. Critical theorists aim to emancipate oppressed groups through resistance and alternative practices.

Organizational justice is a related concept that evaluates fairness within workplace processes. Distributive justice concerns the perceived fairness of reward allocation, while procedural justice examines the fairness of decision-making processes. Interactional justice involves respectful treatment of individuals. Emerging organizational forms like B-Corporations exemplify efforts to integrate social and environmental responsibility into business models, aiming for a triple bottom line of people, planet, and profit (Austin et al., 2010).

Understanding power and control in organizations also involves examining communication as a tool of dominance. Critical theorists highlight how communication channels can serve to reinforce control, limit dissent, and shape organizational culture. Conversely, resistance and alternative communication practices can challenge hegemonic structures (Foucault, 1977).

Cultural approaches to organizational communication argue that shared values, beliefs, and norms shape organizational identity and practice. Culture influences communication styles, decision-making processes, and perceptions of hierarchy, exemplified in Hofstede’s cultural dimensions model, which compares national cultures in terms of power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and other factors (Hofstede, 2001). The contrast between Zeb’s experiences at a traditional bank and Google illustrates how organizational culture affects employee behavior and satisfaction.

Organizational culture is further defined by work environment characteristics such as dress code, time expectations, and communication styles, which collectively shape organizational identity. Subcultures within organizations reflect diverse values and practices, contributing to the complexity of organizational culture. Strategies for cultural change include rituals, symbols, language, and material artifacts that reinforce or challenge existing norms. Paradigm shifts, which involve rethinking fundamental assumptions and boundaries, can lead to profound organizational transformations, though they also risk resistance or failure if deeply ingrained (Schein, 1983).

In conclusion, the integration of systems, critical, and cultural approaches provides a comprehensive understanding of organizational communication. By recognizing organizational systems as dynamic, interconnected, and often contested spaces, scholars and practitioners can better navigate and influence organizational change, power dynamics, and cultural development to foster fairer and more adaptive organizations (Taylor & Van Every, 2000).

References

• Bertalanffy, L. v. (1968). General System Theory. George Braziller.
• Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Vintage Books.
• Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Q. Hoare & G. N. Smith (Eds.).
• Habermas, J. (1984). The Theory of Communicative Action. Beacon Press.
• Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. Sage Publications.
• Miller, J. H., & Page, S. E. (2007). Complex Adaptive Systems: An Introduction to Computational Models of Social Life. Princeton University Press.
• Millett, K. (1970). Sexual Politics. Doubleday.
• Marx, K. (1867). Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Penguin Classics.
• Schein, E. H. (1983). The Role of Founder’s Values in Building Organizational Culture. Organizational Dynamics, 12(1), 13-28.
• Weick, K. E. (2001). Making Sense of the Organization. Blackwell Publishing.
• Wiener, N. (1961). Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. MIT Press.