Chapter 6 Learning Photo Credit Peathegee I

Chapter 6 Learningchapter 6 Learningphoto Credit Peathegee Incble

Chapter 6: Learning Chapter 6: Learning Photo credit: ©Peathegee Inc/Blend Images/Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display 1 Chapter Preview Classical Conditioning Observational Learning Health and Wellness Operant Conditioning Factors That Affect Learning Photo credit: Brand X Pictures/Punchstock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display For chapter 6 Learning Theory Learning a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience Behaviorism Associative Learning / Conditioning Observational Learning © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Note: “durable†is an excellent gloss for “relatively permanent.†“Exposure, practice, & repetition†are what a behaviorist means by “experience†3 Classical Conditioning Types of Learning Helps to explain voluntary behavior.

Performing well in swim competition (behavior) becomes associated with getting awards (consequence). Photo credits: © Punchstock RF, © Photodisc Collection/Getty Images RF, © Ryan McVay/Getty Images RF, © Photodisc Inc./Getty Images RF Operant Conditioning © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display 4 Operant Conditioning Types of Learning Helps to explain involuntary behavior. Control of a response [fear] is shifted to a new stimulus [office]. P Classical Conditioning © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Note: The instructor may wish to point out that in the example of classical conditioning, getting stuck with a needle was NOT a consequence of the subject’s behavior (namely, being fearful)– after all, what doctor would punish fearful patients by sticking them whenever they express fear?

Rather, the fear response is shifted from being elicited by a natural [reflexive] stimulus (namely, pain) to a once neutral stimulus, the sight of a doctor’s office. Hence, Classical Conditioning is characterized as a shift in stimulus control. 5 Classical Conditioning Food (Stimulus) Drool (Response) Sound (Stimulus 2) UCR CR CS NS UCS No Response Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Innate S-R Association Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Acquisition/Learning Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Pavlov’s research 6 Classical Conditioning Food (Stimulus) Drool (Response) Sound (Stimulus 2) UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Contingency: CS regularly followed by UCS Contiguity: Time between CS & UCS © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Note: Rescorla points out that the nature of contingency that best promotes classical conditioning is the same as the contingency a researcher might use to infer cause and effect (as if the CS causes the UCS)

7 Classical Conditioning: Pavlov Photo credit: The Granger Collection, New York © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Suggestion: Instructor might point out that the frame labeled “conditioning†is not repeated merely once, but dozens of times.

Classical Conditioning Bang Fear Rabbit UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Phobias Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert. Photo credit: Courtesy of Professor Benjamin Harris © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Classical Conditioning Ad Actors Fun Product UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Application Advertising Photo credit: © Stockbyte/Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display The positive associations with gorgeous actors having a grand time can become associated with a product they are shown using in a commercial ad.

10 Classical Conditioning Medicine in Pill Pain Relief, immune response Pill UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Application Placebo Effect immune and endocrine responses Photo credit: Jon Feingersh/Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Through classical conditioning, the sight of or act of taking a pill with medicine soon comes to elicit the same pain relief as the medicine itself produces.

You may want to point out in the next slide that precisely the opposite effect occurs with drug tolerance.

11 Classical Conditioning Drug Effect Body Counteracts Drug Drug Paraphernalia UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Application Drug Tolerance / Habituation Photo credit: © Rick Gomez/Corbis RF © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Note: The body naturally protects itself by attempting to neutralize the affects of psychoactive drugs (this is an unlearned reflex). Through classical conditioning, the body learns to anticipate the drug in the presence of drug paraphernalia, and begins neutralizing the drug before it is actually consumed.

Thus, the body must take in even more of the drug to get the same effect. This is how classical conditioning creates drug tolerance. Also, this is why simply seeing drug paraphernalia can trigger withdrawal symptoms or “cravingsâ€. 12 Classical Conditioning Illness Nausea New Taste UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Paired Learned Association Application Taste Aversion Photo credit: Royalty-Free/CORBIS © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Note: Unlike conventional classical conditioning, taste aversion can occur under very impoverished learning conditions. In particular, a powerful taste aversion can be learned with just one exposure (rather than dozens) where the UCR does not occur for several hours (instead of within a split second).

This is considered a counterexample to Pavlov’s theory, and shows that not all S-R associations stand on equal footing. Some are biologically primed, or as we shall see toward the end of the presentation, biologically “preparedâ€. 13 Classical Conditioning Food (Stimulus) Drool (Response) Sound (Stimulus 2) UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Generalization CRs may also appear after various new NS that are similar to the CS © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Suggestion: Generalization is easily illustrated with sounds from markedly different bells, one on which the subject is trained, the second on which the subject is tested for generalization.

14 Classical Conditioning Food (Stimulus) Drool (Response) Sound (Stimulus 2) UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Discrimination CRs appear after the CS but not after other CSs. Discrimination generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Eventually the subject learns that one bell works and the other doesn’t 15 Classical Conditioning Extinction CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS Pavlov rang bell but did not present food; the dog stopped salivating. Spontaneous Recovery CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning. When Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated. © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display 16 Extinguishing Eating Hunger Eating Food Cues UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Eating in the Absence of Hunger Photo credit: © D.

Hurst/Alamy Stock Photo Repeatedly Attended Without Hunger Extinguished Association © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Classical Conditioning Bullying Fear School UCR CR CS NS UCS Unlearned Reflex Repeatedly Paired Learned Association Counterconditioning Goal: Associate CS with new, incompatible CR Means: CS paired with new UCS Friend Fun © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display This diagram illustrates how school itself can become aversive when associated with bullies, but pleasant when associated with kindly friends. Thus, to counteract the association with bullies, keep the bullies away (extinction) and replace them with kindly friends (producing an incompatible response).

Paper For Above instruction

Learning is a fundamental process that results in a systematic and relatively permanent change in behavior through experience. Psychologists have extensively studied different types of learning to understand how organisms adapt, respond, and develop new behaviors in response to their environment. The primary theories explaining learning include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Each theory offers insights into how behaviors are acquired, maintained, or extinguished, and how cognitive, biological, cultural, and psychological factors influence these processes.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, first discovered by Ivan Pavlov, explains how organisms learn to associate two stimuli, leading to a conditioned response. Pavlov’s experiments with dogs revealed that a neutral stimulus (like a bell) could be paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus (like food) to elicit a conditioned response (salivation). Over time, the neutral stimulus alone could trigger the response. Classical conditioning is particularly effective in explaining involuntary responses and behaviors such as phobias, taste aversions, and drug tolerances.

One influential application of classical conditioning is in understanding phobias. Watson and Rayner’s experiment with Little Albert demonstrated how fear could be conditioned to a neutral stimulus like a white rat. Additionally, classical conditioning has applications in advertising, where positive emotions associated with attractive models and enjoyable experiences are linked with products. The process of conditioned immune responses and pain relief through placebo effects also reflect classical conditioning principles (Rescorla, 1988).

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner building on Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect, emphasizes learning through consequences. Behaviors followed by reinforcers tend to increase in frequency, while those followed by punishments decrease. Reinforcement can be positive, involving adding a rewarding stimulus, or negative, involving removing an aversive stimulus. Conversely, punishment aims to decrease behavior by presenting an unpleasant stimulus or removing a good one.

Practical applications include behavior management in educational and therapeutic settings, where reinforcement schedules optimize learning. For instance, fixed and variable ratio and interval schedules influence behavior frequency, such as in gambling or workforce productivity (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). Reinforcement principles are also central to behavioral modification programs designed to promote health behaviors, like exercise or medication adherence.

Observational Learning

Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory emphasizes that learning can occur by observing others and imitating their behavior. This process involves attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement. Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children model aggressive behaviors observed in adults, highlighting the importance of imitation in social learning.

Cognitive factors such as expectations, motivation, and self-regulation influence whether observational learning results in behavior change. Consequently, modeling can be used therapeutically, such as in cognitive-behavioral therapy, to promote positive behavioral change (Bandura, 1977). Moreover, media exposure to violence can have adverse effects, emphasizing the role of cognition and environment in learning outcomes.

Cognitive and Biological Factors in Learning

Learning is not solely dependent on environmental stimuli but also involves cognitive processes such as goal-setting, self-monitoring, and expectancy. These higher-order factors influence the likelihood and type of learning. For example, goal-directed behavior involves purposive actions motivated by expectations of outcomes (Miller & Dollard, 1941). Latent and insight learning further demonstrate that understanding and internal cognition play critical roles (Tolman, 1948; Köhler, 1925).

Biological constraints significantly shape learning capabilities. Taste aversion learning, which occurs after a single exposure, exemplifies biological preparedness where certain associations are more easily formed due to evolutionary adaptations. Cultural influences also shape learning content and mechanisms, impacting what and how individuals learn within societal contexts (Cole, 1996).

Learning’s Role in Health and Wellness

Learning principles are integral to health promotion and disease prevention. Classical and operant conditioning help explain health behaviors such as smoking cessation, exercise adherence, and medication compliance. For example, the placebo effect illustrates conditioned immune responses, where the sight or act of taking medication triggers placebo responses that can aid recovery (Wager et al., 2004).

Moreover, understanding conditioned drug tolerance is vital in addiction treatment. The body anticipates drug effects through cues like paraphernalia, leading to physiological preparation that increases tolerance. Failure to consider these conditioned responses can result in overdose or withdrawal symptoms. Stress management, another health domain, benefits from understanding how cues and responses are conditioned, allowing for interventions like counterconditioning to replace harmful associations with healthier ones (Siegel, 2005).

Conclusion

Overall, learning theories provide crucial insights into behavioral development, health, and psychological wellbeing. Classical and operant conditioning elucidate how behaviors are acquired and extinguished, while observational learning emphasizes the social component of learning. Incorporating cognitive, biological, and cultural perspectives enhances our understanding of human learning and informs effective interventions to promote health and wellness. Recognizing these multifaceted influences helps health professionals develop better strategies to foster positive behavioral change and improve quality of life.

References

• Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.
• Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once-and-future discipline. Harvard University Press.
• Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Köhler, W. (1925). The mentality of apes. Harcourt Brace.
• Miller, N. E., & Dollard, J. (1941). Social learning and imitation. Yale University Press.
• Rescorla, R. A. (1988). Pavlovian conditioning: It’s not what you think it is. American Psychologist, 43(3), 151–159.
• Siegel, S. (2005). Drug tolerance and drug addiction. American Psychologist, 60(5), 515–532.
• Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55(4), 189–208.
• Wager, T. D., et al. (2004). Placebo-induced changes in fMRI in the anticipation and experience of pain. Science, 303(5661), 1162–1167.
• Winston, D. (2014). The psychology of learning. Routledge.