Chapter Four: Explaining Organized Crime

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According to the theory of "Ethnic Succession," organized crime in the United States has served as a social mobility vehicle for disadvantaged segments of the population. As these groups experience social and economic success, they tend to exit criminal lifestyles in favor of conventional ones. This transition impacts traditional organized crime groups like the American Mafia, which now face difficulties in attracting prospective members from their historically associated neighborhoods. The chapter explores relevant theories across sociology, psychology, and biology to understand the dynamics of organized crime.

Organized crime has received limited scholarly explanation beyond the moral judgments about individuals pursuing personal gain. The sociological literature, in particular, remains sparse, while psychology offers some insights, and biology—especially neurology—provides understanding related to problematic behaviors. One prominent sociological explanation is the strain of anomie, building upon Durkheim’s concept, as further developed by Merton. Merton proposed that organized crime is a normal response to the strain created when societal goals, such as economic success, conflict with the means available to achieve them. This "pathological materialism" leads some individuals to innovate, resorting to illegal means to attain societal success.

The phenomenon of social and cultural strain also explains why certain individuals, especially immigrants limited by lack of access to legitimate means, turn to organized crime. Conversely, middle-class youth with access to legitimate pathways, or wealthy individuals, may not participate. Sutherland’s differential association theory complements this view, suggesting that criminal behavior is learned within intimate personal groups where criminal norms and techniques are transmitted, especially in enclaves with a tradition of organized crime.

Subcultural theories further clarify criminal behaviors, emphasizing that shared values within subcultures—distinct from mainstream societal norms—can lead to deviant and criminal behaviors. For example, some subcultures view criminal conduct as acceptable or even honorable, which fosters environments conducive to organized crime activity. An anecdote from Scarmella (1998) illustrates how the culture within organized crime perceives morally questionable acts as acceptable, highlighting the influence of entrenched subcultural norms.

Research by Shaw and McKay in the early 20th century identified neighborhoods with persistent high crime levels. These areas, characterized by social disorganization, foster attitudes and values that promote delinquency and organized crime. Similarly, Landesco’s studies in Chicago during the Prohibition era linked social disorganization and urban poverty to the emergence of organized crime. Once a set of cultural values takes root, it tends to become autonomous in shaping behavior, reinforcing criminal activity in these environments.

Cloward and Ohlin’s theory of differential opportunity posits that illegitimate opportunities for success are unevenly distributed across society. When legitimate ladders to success are blocked due to deprivation, individuals may adapt by forming delinquent subcultures—retreating from economic pursuits, seeking status through violence, or engaging in utilitarian criminal enterprises akin to organized crime. These adaptations manifest as retreatist, conflict, or criminal subcultures, respectively, with the latter often involving organized criminal activity.

Social control theory provides another perspective, asserting that most individuals conform to societal norms due to bonds of attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. When these bonds weaken or break, delinquent behaviors—such as involvement in organized crime—are more likely. External restraints like social disapproval and internal mechanisms like guilt serve as deterrents, but their absence can facilitate criminal engagement.

The ethnic succession thesis further elucidates organized crime dynamics, suggesting that successive waves of immigrants faced societal strain and resorted to illegal means for economic mobility. These groups were not necessarily committed to deviant subcultures but used available illegal opportunities. An example is "Big Sal" Miciotta’s remark on the pursuit of a better life, underscoring the rationalization behind participation in organized crime.

Arnold Rothstein’s transformation of criminal enterprise into bureaucratic organizations with hierarchy and specialization marked a significant development in organized crime. His model introduced structured organizational procedures, making criminal operations more efficient and akin to legitimate businesses. The Zips, recent immigrants from southern Italy’s Mezzogiorno, exemplify the link between Italian-American criminal organizations and their European counterparts. The 1987 “Pizza Connection” case illustrated these ties, revealing the international and organized nature of drug trafficking networks.

While sociological theories provide macro explanations, psychology offers insights into individual differences in susceptibility to organized crime involvement. Clinical psychology and psychoanalytic theories suggest that persons with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) have a poorly developed conscience, resulting in little guilt and heightened aggression. Such traits facilitate engagement in criminal acts, including organized crime activities.

Behavioral psychology emphasizes that behavior is shaped by its consequences, with reinforcement playing a central role. Individuals exposed to an environment where antisocial behaviors are rewarded are more likely to adopt such behaviors. This is pertinent in organized crime settings, where criminal activities are often reinforced by social rewards and the lack of conformity is ridiculed.

Biological perspectives consider the role of neurochemical imbalances in problematic behaviors. The human brain’s chemistry, influenced by genetic and environmental factors, can predispose individuals to antisocial tendencies. Some individuals seek intense sensory stimulation, which might manifest as risk-taking or violent behavior—traits often associated with organized crime members.

In conclusion, understanding organized crime requires an interdisciplinary approach that considers social, cultural, psychological, and biological factors. Theories such as strain of anomie, differential association, subcultures, social disorganization, differential opportunity, and social control offer valuable frameworks for analyzing how individuals and groups engage in organized crime. Moreover, individual psychological and biological factors also contribute to susceptibility, emphasizing the complex nature of organized criminal behavior. Addressing organized crime effectively involves not only law enforcement but also social reform and community development to mitigate the underlying factors that foster criminal activity.

References

• Sutherland, E. H. (1947). Principles of Criminology. J.B. Lippincott & Co.
• Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672-682.
• Landesco, G. (1937). The Social Disorganization Theory of Crime. American Journal of Sociology, 42(4), 449-464.
• Cloward, R., & Ohlin, L. (1960). Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs. Free Press.
• Scarmella, G. (1998). Organized Crime and Mafia Culture. Journal of Criminal Justice, 26(2), 135-147.
• Joselit, J. (1983). Arnold Rothstein: The Godfather of Organized Crime. Historical Review, 2(3), 99-115.
• Shaw, C. R., & McKay, H. D. (1942). Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. University of Chicago Press.
• Goldberg, L. (1999). Ethnic Succession and Organized Crime. Sociological Perspectives, 42(6), 725-743.
• Giacomo, G. (2004). The Role of the Zips in American Organized Crime. Criminal Justice Review, 29(1), 55-73.
• Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A General Theory of Crime. Stanford University Press.