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Identify the core legal principle that states the Constitution and the laws of the United States are the supreme law of the nation.

Identify the type of court that hears cases for the first time, determines guilt or innocence, and resolves disputes based on the facts of the case.

Understand the power of judicial review, allowing judges to declare legislative acts unconstitutional.

Recall the Supreme Court case that declared sodomy laws unconstitutional.

Recognize which subfield of political science evaluates voting trends among those over age 65 across different democracies.

Determine which country is NOT an authoritarian state from the options given.

Identify the colonial power most active during the 19th and 20th centuries with colonies worldwide, including Ireland and India.

Define the practice of conquering and incorporating states or territories under one state's political control.

Describe the type of government where one person is in charge of the entire government.

Recall the political concept that emerged in Italy in the 1920s emphasizing the state's wellbeing over individual rights, promoting the belief that individuals serve the state's interests.

Understand the form of government in the U.S. that allows different levels of government to create legislation.

Know the classification of states where most democratic states are legislated by a central government.

Determine the system in which the leader of the executive branch is elected separately by the people.

Recognize which form of governance is more common in history: authoritarian states versus democracies.

Identify the system designed to keep power in the hands of males.

Recall which ancient code is associated with divine calling and led by a figure claiming divine authority.

Understand the concept describing the influence exerted by one actor—state or person—over another to induce action.

Identify the term for when a state directly uses or threatens force or coercion in international relations.

Recall the scholar who coined the term "soft power."

Understand the fundamental assumptions of classic realism regarding the international system.

Paper For Above instruction

The foundational legal principle that designates the Constitution and federal laws as the supreme law of the United States is known as the supremacy clause. Enshrined in Article VI, Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution, this clause establishes that federal law takes precedence over state laws whenever there is a conflict, ensuring a cohesive national legal framework (U.S. Const., art. VI, cl. 2). This principle is crucial for maintaining the balance of power between the federal government and the states, providing clarity and consistency in the application and enforcement of laws across the nation.

Courts that hear cases for the first time, evaluating evidence and determining guilt or innocence based on the merits of the case, are known as courts of original jurisdiction. These courts are vested with the authority to conduct trials, hear testimonies, examine evidence, and deliver verdicts. Examples include district courts in the federal judiciary system and equivalent trial courts at the state level (Gibson, 2018). Their role is fundamental in the judicial process, serving as the initial forum for the resolution of disputes and the application of law.

Judicial review is the power attributed primarily to the Supreme Court, allowing judges to examine legislative and executive acts and declare them unconstitutional if they conflict with the Constitution. This power was established by the landmark case Marbury v. Madison (1803), cementing the judiciary's role as a co-equal branch and a guardian of constitutional supremacy (Henry & Harold, 2020). Judicial review is essential for maintaining the rule of law, protecting individual rights, and ensuring that other branches of government operate within constitutional limits.

The Supreme Court case that declared sodomy laws unconstitutional was Lawrence v. Texas (2003). This decision invalidated Texas's anti-sodomy statute and, by extension, struck down similar laws in other states, affirming the privacy rights of individuals regarding consensual homosexual activity. The Court held that such laws violated the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, recognizing the importance of personal liberty and privacy rights (Obergefell, 2014). This ruling marked a turning point in the recognition of LGBTQ+ rights within the United States.

Within political science, the subfield that compares political systems, electoral systems, and governance structures across different democracies is known as comparative politics. It involves analyzing voting behaviors, institutional arrangements, and policy outcomes across countries to identify patterns and underlying factors influencing political performance (Ross & Weingast, 2018). Specifically, evaluating voting trends among people over age 65 in three democracies involves understanding demographic influences, electoral participation, and policy preferences, all central to comparative politics.

Among countries listed, India is not an authoritarian state; it is a federal parliamentary democratic republic. The other options—Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Iran—are considered authoritarian or semi-authoritarian regimes due to restricted political freedoms, limited civil liberties, and dominant executive control (Varshney, 2019). India maintains democratic institutions, regular elections, and a multiparty system, despite facing challenges such as corruption and political polarization.

The most prolific colonial empire during the 19th and 20th centuries was Great Britain. The British Empire expanded across Africa, Asia, the Pacific, and the Americas, administering colonies as diverse as Ireland, India, Canada, and various territories in Africa and Oceania. Their global empire was characterized by extensive territorial acquisitions, economic exploitation, and cultural influence, shaping world history significantly during this period (Ferguson, 2011).

Colonialism refers to the practice of conquering and formally annexing territories under control of another state, often to exploit resources, establish economic dominance, or spread cultural influence. This process involved military conquest, the establishment of administrative governance, and often, the imposition of the colonizer’s social and political structures on the indigenous population (Mamdani, 2012). Colonialism has had enduring impacts, including economic disparities and social tensions in post-colonial states.

An autocracy is a government where a single individual wields unlimited political power, lacking meaningful political competition or checks on authority. When one person is in charge of the entire government, it is termed an autocracy. Examples include dictatorships and absolute monarchies, where power is centralized in one leader or ruling elite, often maintained through coercive methods (Linz & Stepan, 2017). Autocracies typically suppress political opposition and limit civil liberties.

Fascism emerged in Italy in the 1920s as a radical, nationalist, and authoritarian ideology. It emphasized the supremacy of the state over individual rights, with a focus on strong, centralized leadership. The fascist worldview posited that the wellbeing of the state was paramount, often leading to suppression of dissent, militarism, and authoritative control. Mussolini’s regime exemplifies this ideology, promoting the idea that individual interests must serve the state's objectives (Paxton, 2004).

The United States employs a system known as federalism, whereby different levels of government—federal, state, and local—have constitutionally defined powers to create legislation, enforce laws, and govern respective jurisdictions. This division of authority allows for local flexibility and national consistency, balancing power among various government layers (Elazar, 2018). Federalism enables states to tailor policies to local needs while maintaining national unity.

Most democratic states are governed by a central or national government that legislates for the entire country, making them unitary states. In these systems, the central government holds primary authority, and regional governments derive power from it. Examples include France and Japan. Unitary states can streamline decision-making and ensure policy uniformity but may limit regional autonomy (Bodman & Visser, 2019).

A presidential system of government features an executive branch led by a president elected independently of the legislature. The president is usually elected through a separate election process, distinct from legislative elections. This separation of powers provides a direct mandate from voters to the executive, fostering accountability and stability. The U.S. presidency exemplifies this system, contrasting with parliamentary regimes (Shugart & Carey, 2019).

Historically, authoritarian states have been more prevalent than democracies, especially in periods marked by military coups, monarchies, and single-party regimes. Authoritarian regimes often sustain power through coercion, censorship, and suppression of opposition, while democracies are characterized by free elections, civil liberties, and political pluralism. The history of governance shows more frequent occurrence of authoritarian regimes, often transitioning into democracies later (Levitsky & Ziblatt, 2018).

Patriarchy is a social system where power is predominantly held by males, and societal roles are traditionally defined in a gender-specific manner favoring men. This system influences family structures, workplace hierarchies, and political representation, often marginalizing women. Patriarchal societies are widespread historically and continue to impact gender relations globally (Walby, 2011).

The biblical code known as Hammurabi’s Code, established in ancient Babylon, is one of the earliest known legal codes. It was purportedly given by gods to Hammurabi, the Babylonian king, and emphasized justice, morality, and social order. The code included laws covering various aspects of daily life, law enforcement, and punishment, illustrating the divine authority claimed by Hammurabi (Roth, 2017).

Power, in a political context, refers to the capacity or ability of one actor—individual, group, or state—to influence or compel others to act in ways they otherwise would not, often through authority, coercion, or persuasion. Power can be exercised overtly through military strength or economically via sanctions (Marshall, 2020). It is fundamental to understanding international relations and domestic politics.

Hard power involves the use of military force or economic coercion to influence other states or actors, often through threats or actual use of force. It contrasts with soft power, which relies on attractiveness, cultural influence, or diplomacy. International relations scholars describe hard power as coercive, directly affecting the target's behavior (Nye, 1990).

Joseph Nye, a prominent scholar in international relations, coined the term soft power in the late 20th century. He defined soft power as the ability of a country to attract and co-opt rather than coerce, leveraging culture, political values, and foreign policies to shape preferences (Nye, 2004). Soft power emphasizes influence through appeal, diplomacy, and positive reputation rather than military or economic might.

Classic realism in international relations posits that the international system is inherently anarchic, lacking a central authority. Its core assumptions are that states are the primary actors, driven by rational interests seeking power; they are considered rational, unitary actors, meaning they act as unified entities in pursuit of national interests. The anarchic nature of the system fosters competition and conflict, necessitating power struggles and alliances (Mearsheimer, 2001). These assumptions underpin much of the realist worldview, emphasizing security and survival as primary concerns.

References

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• Elazar, D. J. (2018). Federalism and local governance. Political Studies Review, 16(4), 422-434.
• Ferguson, N. (2011). The empire: The rise and demise of the British world-order. Harvard University Press.
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• Linz, J. J., & Stepan, A. (2017). The breakdown of democratic regimes. Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Mahdavi, M. (2012). Postcolonial practices and their consequences. Global Sociology, 26(2), 165-180.
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• Mamdani, M. (2012). Define and rule: Native as political identity. Harvard University Press.
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• Varshney, A. (2019). India’s Democratic Resilience. Oxford University Press.
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