Describe The Historical Schools Of Thought In Psychology

Describe the historical schools of thought in Psychology (including structuralism, Gestalt psychology, functionalism, psycho-dynamic approach, and behaviorism).

The historical schools of thought in psychology represent the evolution of understanding human behavior and mental processes over time. Structuralism, founded by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, aimed to analyze the conscious mind by breaking it down into basic structures or elements through introspection. Gestalt psychology, developed by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, emphasized that the whole of perception is greater than the sum of its parts, advocating for understanding how humans naturally organize their perceptions. Functionalism, led by William James, focused on the functions of mental processes and how they help individuals adapt to their environment, emphasizing the purpose behind behavior. The psycho-dynamic approach, rooted in Sigmund Freud’s theories, explored how unconscious motives, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts influence behavior and mental health. Behaviorism, associated with John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, rejected the study of the mind itself and focused strictly on observable behaviors and their environmental determinants, emphasizing learning through reinforcement and punishment.

Describe the 6 major current approaches to Psychology discussed in class (biological, psychodynamic, evolutionary, cognitive, humanistic and behaviorism). How do these approaches differ?

The six major contemporary approaches in psychology offer diverse perspectives for understanding human thought and behavior. The biological approach emphasizes the influence of genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, and biological processes on behavior. It seeks to understand how physiological factors underpin mental phenomena. The psychodynamic approach, rooted in Freud’s theories, examines unconscious motives, internal conflicts, and early experiences shaping personality and behavior. The evolutionary approach considers how natural selection has shaped cognitive functions and behaviors that enhance survival and reproductive success. The cognitive approach focuses on internal mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and language, emphasizing how people encode, process, and store information. The humanistic approach, championed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, stresses individual free will, personal growth, and self-actualization, viewing humans as inherently good and motivated by a desire for fulfillment. Lastly, behaviorism centers on observable behaviors and how environmental stimuli influence learning through reinforcement; it generally dismisses internal mental states as unscientific.

These approaches differ primarily in their focus: biological emphasizes physiology, psychodynamic delves into unconscious processes, evolutionary looks at adaptation, cognitive concentrates on mental processes, humanistic stresses personal agency and growth, and behaviorism emphasizes external behaviors and environmental control. They often complement each other but differ in their methods and explanatory scope.

How are the Science of Psychology and Pseudo-Psychology different (refer to your textbook for assistance with this answer)? Discuss phrenology, palmistry, and astrology.

The science of psychology is grounded in empirical research, systematic observation, and the scientific method to understand and predict mental processes and behavior. It relies on evidence, experimentation, and reproducibility to validate findings. Pseudo-psychology, in contrast, involves beliefs and practices presented as scientific but lacking empirical support, rigorous testing, or falsifiability.

Phrenology, palmistry, and astrology are examples of pseudo-psychology. Phrenology claimed that personality traits could be determined by the bumps on a person’s skull, but systematic research failed to support these claims, classifying it as a pseudoscience. Palmistry, the practice of reading lines on the palm to predict personality or future events, lacks scientific validation and is considered a superstition. Astrology suggests that the positions of celestial bodies influence human lives, yet scientific investigations have not demonstrated consistent or causal relationships, rendering it pseudoscientific. Recognizing the difference is crucial to maintaining scientific integrity and avoiding misleading or unsubstantiated claims about human behavior.

Define Empiricism. Define the science of Psychology.

Empiricism is the philosophical principle that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience and observation. It emphasizes evidence-based understanding through observation, experimentation, and inductive reasoning. In psychology, empiricism underpins all scientific research, requiring data collection through controlled experiments and observations to draw valid conclusions.

The science of psychology is an empirical discipline that systematically studies behavior and mental processes using scientific methods. It aims to understand, predict, and influence human and animal behavior through research, experimentation, and observation, adhering to principles of empirical evidence and reproducibility.

What is the scientific method? Define each component of the scientific method. Why are operational definitions essential to this method?

The scientific method is a systematic process used to investigate phenomena, acquire new knowledge, and correct previous knowledge. The key components include:

• Question: Formulating a research question based on observations or existing theories.
• Hypothesis: Developing a testable prediction or explanation.
• Research/Experimentation: Conducting controlled experiments or studies to test the hypothesis.
• Data Collection: Gathering measurable and observable data.
• Analysis: Interpreting the data to determine if it supports the hypothesis.
• Conclusion: Drawing conclusions and refining theories or hypotheses for further testing.

Operational definitions are essential because they specify how variables are measured or manipulated, ensuring clarity and consistency. Without operational definitions, researchers cannot replicate studies or verify results, which are fundamental to scientific validity and reliability.

Name the steps you would use to evaluate a piece of scientific research (questions we discussed in class to help you evaluate – we used these to evaluate eye movement desensitization and reprocessing).

To evaluate scientific research, the following steps are essential:

1. Assess the research question for clarity and relevance.
2. Examine the methodology for appropriateness, including sample size, controls, and operational definitions.
3. Evaluate the research design—whether experimental, correlational, or observational—and whether it can establish causality.
4. Review the data collection and analysis for accuracy and objectivity.
5. Consider whether the results are statistically significant and practically meaningful.
6. Identify potential biases, confounding variables, or ethical concerns.
7. Check for replication and consistency of findings in other studies.
8. Determine if the conclusions are supported by the data without overgeneralization.

What are the different methods used to conduct scientific research in Psychology? What are their features, strengths and weaknesses? In what method(s) can you determine the cause of a behavior? Can you determine direction of cause when you have a correlation?

Psychologists employ various research methods, including experiments, correlational studies, case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observations.

Experiments manipulate variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships. They are highly controlled and can determine causality but may lack ecological validity. Correlational studies measure relationships between variables without manipulation, useful for identifying associations but cannot establish causality. Case studies provide in-depth analysis of a single individual or small group, offering detailed insights but limited generalizability. Surveys gather data from large populations efficiently but may suffer from biases like self-report inaccuracies. Naturalistic observation involves observing behavior in real-world settings, enhancing ecological validity but limiting control over variables.

Experiments are the primary method for determining causal relationships because they allow manipulation of variables and control of confounding factors. Correlational studies can identify relationships but cannot confirm causation. A correlation coefficient indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between variables but does not imply causality; causation requires experimental manipulation.

Explain the difference between a positive correlation, negative correlation, and no relationship between 2 variables. What would correlation coefficients of +0.9, 0, or -0.9 mean about the relationship between two variables?

A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other also increases (e.g., height and weight). A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g., age and hearing ability). No relationship indicates that the variables are unrelated, and changes in one do not predict changes in the other.

A correlation coefficient of +0.9 suggests a strong positive relationship; as one variable increases, so does the other. A coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship; the variables are independent. A coefficient of -0.9 indicates a strong negative relationship; as one variable increases, the other decreases.

Imagine you are a neural signal moving from one cortical neuron to another. Describe your journey and all of the processes that occur along the way. Start at the point where the neuron you are in reaches its action potential, and a signal starts down the axon, through the synapse to the next cell (how does the message bridge the synapse?). In the next cell, describe what contributes to the probability the next cell will reach its threshold for an action potential.

Starting at the neuron’s axon hillock, the neuron reaches its threshold and generates an action potential, typically around -55 mV. During depolarization, sodium channels open, allowing Na+ ions to rush in, increasing the neuron’s charge towards +40 mV. At this peak, sodium channels close, and potassium channels open, allowing K+ ions to exit, repolarizing the neuron and restoring the negative charge. The action potential travels down the axon via salutatory conduction if the neuron is myelinated, jumping between nodes of Ranvier, increasing speed.

As the signal approaches the terminal, voltage-gated calcium channels open, allowing Ca2+ influx, which triggers neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron, causing ion channels to open or close, influencing the postsynaptic membrane potential. Whether the next neuron reaches its threshold depends on the sum of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs). If the net charge exceeds the threshold, an action potential is generated in the next neuron, propagating the signal.

What are the exact charges (in milli-volts) of a neuron during the different stages of an action potential (include the resting state).

In the resting state, a neuron’s membrane potential is approximately -70 mV. During depolarization, the membrane potential rises towards +40 mV as Na+ channels open. Peak depolarization reaches about +40 mV. During repolarization, K+ channels open, and the potential drops back towards -70 mV. After hyperpolarization, the membrane potential briefly becomes more negative than the resting potential, around -80 mV, before stabilizing at -70 mV.

Define neurotransmitter and hormones.

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released by neurons to transmit signals across synapses to other neurons, muscles, or glands. Examples include dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine. Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to target organs, influencing processes such as growth, metabolism, and mood. Examples include cortisol, insulin, and estrogen.

What is myelin?

Myelin is a fatty, insulating sheath that wraps around the axons of many neurons. It speeds up electrical signal conduction via saltatory conduction, jumping between nodes of Ranvier. Myelination enhances the efficiency of neural communication and reduces energy expenditure.

What are the central and peripheral nervous systems? What are the autonomic and somatic systems of the peripheral nervous system?

The central nervous system (CNS) comprises the brain and spinal cord, serving as the control center for processing information. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the CNS to the rest of the body and is divided into the somatic and autonomic systems. The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements and transmits sensory information. The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration, and includes sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

What are the ways the brain can be studied? Explain both invasive and non-invasive techniques.

Brain studies employ both invasive and non-invasive methods. Invasive techniques include procedures like brain surgery, implantation of electrodes, and deep brain stimulation, which provide direct access to brain tissue or activity but involve surgical risks. Non-invasive techniques encompass neuroimaging methods such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional MRI (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET), electroencephalography (EEG), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). These approaches allow researchers to observe and measure brain activity without surgery, offering safer options but often with less precision than invasive methods.

What is the cerebral cortex? Do all animal species have a cerebral cortex? How are humans unique with regard to this brain structure? Describe the major areas of the cerebral cortex. What are the general functions of these areas?

The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain involved in higher-order functions such as perceiving, reasoning, language, and decision-making. Not all animal species possess a developed cerebral cortex; many have less complex or no cortex at all. Humans are unique for their highly folded and expanded cortex, especially in the frontal lobes, supporting advanced cognitive abilities like abstract thought and complex language.

The major areas include:

• Frontal lobe: involved in planning, judgment, personality, and motor control.
• Parietal lobe: processes sensory information related to touch, temperature, and pain.
• Temporal lobe: responsible for auditory processing and memory.
• Occipital lobe: processes visual information.

These areas work together to interpret sensory information, coordinate responses, and support complex behaviors.

What is the corpus callosum? What is its function?

The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Its primary function is to facilitate communication and coordination between the two hemispheres, enabling integrated cognitive and motor functions.

What are Wernike’s and Broca’s areas of the cerebral cortex? Describe the aphasias caused by damage to these areas. What is agnosia? What is the hippocampus and for what function is it specialized?

Wernicke’s area, located in the posterior part of the dominant temporal lobe, is crucial for language comprehension. Damage here causes Wernicke’s aphasia, characterized by fluent but nonsensical speech and difficulty understanding language. Broca’s area, in the frontal lobe, is involved in speech production; damage results in Broca’s aphasia, where speech is halting and effortful but comprehension remains intact. Agnosia is the inability to recognize objects, sounds, or smells despite functioning sensory pathways and intact basic perception. The hippocampus is a brain structure essential for forming, organizing, and storing new memories.

What is neural plasticity? What are the ways your nervous system is plastic?

Neural plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to change and adapt as a result of experience, learning, or injury. This includes the formation of new synapses, reorganization of existing pathways, and the regrowth of neural tissue. Plasticity allows recovery from brain injury, adaptation to new environments, and the acquisition of new skills.

In the article “Rethinking the Brain: How the Songs of Canaries Upset a Fundamental Principle of Science,” what was the important discovery of F. Nottebohm? Why was it controversial? If you were a member of congress, what do you think your instructor would tell you is an important lesson to take away from this article?

F. Nottebohm discovered that adult canaries can form new neurons in their brain regions involved in song production, demonstrating that neurogenesis persists in the adult brain—a finding that challenged the long-held belief that neurons do not regenerate after a certain age. This was controversial because it contradicted established dogma and opened new avenues for understanding brain plasticity. As a legislator, the lesson from this could be the importance of revising scientific assumptions based on new evidence, encouraging continuous inquiry, and avoiding dogmatic thinking in policy and science.

What are the dimensions along which visible light can be described? What is the range of light we (humans) can see? What property of an object determines what color we see when looking at it?

Visible light can be described along dimensions such as wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and intensity. The human visual spectrum ranges from approximately 380 to 740 nanometers in wavelength. The property that determines the color perceived is primarily wavelength: shorter wavelengths correspond to blue and violet, while longer wavelengths appear red.

As a photon travels into our eye, describe the parts of the eye it travels through and what those parts do to the light.

When a photon enters the eye, it first passes through the cornea, which refracts (bends) light to focus it. It then passes through the aqueous humor, the pupil (which adjusts size to control light intake), the lens (which fine-tunes focus onto the retina), and the vitreous humor. Finally, it reaches the retina, where photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) transduce light into electrical signals for visual processing.

In what way is the retina built backwards (think about the direction that light travels and the organization of the layers of cells in the retina)?

The retina is considered "backward" because light must pass through several layers of neurons before reaching the photoreceptors (rods and cones). These layers include bipolar cells, horizontal cells, and ganglion cells, which can diminish light quality. Evolutionarily, the photoreceptors are located behind these layers, meaning light passes through these cells first, potentially reducing visual clarity.

Describe how rods and cones differ and what they are specialized to do. What is the fovea? What is the blindspot? What area of the retina has the most rods? What area has the most cones? How will that impact vision in the center of your visual field versus the periphery?

Rods and cones are photoreceptor cells; rods are highly sensitive to light and facilitate night vision but do not detect color. Cones operate in bright light and are responsible for color vision and fine detail. The f