Discuss Continuity And Discontinuity In Development

Discuss continuity/discontinuity in the developments of the major themes of the China’s foreign and security policy since

Analyze the evolution of China’s foreign and security policies from the era of Deng Xiaoping’s Four Modernizations in 1978 through to the present under Xi Jinping. Examine the major themes of China’s foreign policy, including economic globalization, regional assertiveness, military modernization, and diplomatic strategies. Discuss the extent to which these themes have maintained continuity or experienced discontinuity over time, considering political, economic, and security factors that have influenced policy shifts or persistent trends. Explore how these developments reflect China’s strategic objectives, such as national sovereignty, regional influence, and a growing role on the global stage.

Further, assess the changes and continuities in China’s foreign, economic, and security policies under Xi Jinping, especially in relation to its regional and international relations. Investigate how Xi’s emphasis on the Chinese Dream, the Belt and Road Initiative, military reforms, and a more assertive diplomatic posture compare and contrast with previous administrations’ approaches. Evaluate whether China under Xi maintains the fundamental themes established after Deng’s reforms or shifts toward new strategic priorities, especially in the context of complex global challenges, including U.S.-China rivalry, regional conflicts, and economic competition.

Paper For Above instruction

The development of China’s foreign and security policies since Deng Xiaoping’s era of reform and opening up has been marked by both continuity and change, reflecting China's evolving national interests and the shifting global environment. The Four Modernizations introduced in 1978 laid the foundation for an outward-looking economic strategy and a cautious approach to international engagement, emphasizing modernization in agriculture, industry, defense, and science and technology. These reforms aimed to modernize China’s economy and military, integrate with the global economy, and gradually increase China's influence on the world stage, albeit with a focus on stability and sovereignty.

Initially, the post-1978 period saw a policy of relatively cautious engagement with the world, prioritizing economic growth and maintaining internal stability. Over time, China’s foreign policy themes converged around economic globalization, regional influence, military modernization, and diplomatic assertiveness. Under Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, this trajectory largely continued, emphasizing 'peaceful development,' economic diplomacy, and strategic partnerships with neighboring countries and major powers. China’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 exemplified its commitment to economic integration and global economic order, marking a significant milestone in its foreign policy continuity.

However, as China's economic size and global influence expanded, so did its strategic ambitions, leading to some discontinuities. Under Xi Jinping’s leadership starting in 2012, there has been noticeable shifts in approach. Xi has emphasized the ‘Chinese Dream,’ asserting greater sovereignty and national pride, and launched the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) to expand China’s economic and geopolitical influence through infrastructure development and connectivity projects across Asia, Africa, and Europe. This represents a departure from earlier, more cautious engagement, reflecting a more assertive regional and global posture.

Furthermore, China’s military modernization has accelerated under Xi, with expanded defense budgets, increased military presence in the South and East China Seas, and efforts to project power globally, including the establishment of military bases in strategic locations. These actions indicate a break from previous policy norms of strategic patience and highlight a shift toward a more assertive security posture. Similarly, diplomacy has become more confident and proactive, with China positioning itself as a leader among developing nations and challenging Western dominance, especially as the U.S.-China rivalry intensifies.

Throughout these shifts, some themes remain consistent. China continues to prioritize sovereignty, non-interference, and economic development as core principles. The pursuit of regional stability in East Asia and the integration of China into the global economy remain central. Nevertheless, under Xi, these objectives are pursued with a willingness to challenge existing international norms and to shape the global order more actively, signaling partial discontinuity with earlier, more cautious policies.

In conclusion, while China’s fundamental strategic themes such as sovereignty, economic development, and regional stability persist, there are significant shifts under Xi Jinping towards increased assertiveness and proactive global engagement. The combination of continuity in core national interests with discontinuity in tactics and scope reflects China’s complex evolution from a secondary regional actor to a major global power, operating on new strategic dimensions that redefine its foreign and security policies.

Assess the role of SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization) with its new members in 2017. How could the expansion affect the role of China in the Organization?

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), founded in 2001, initially aimed to foster regional security and stability among its member states—China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Over the years, the SCO has expanded its scope from primarily security concerns to include economic cooperation, cultural exchanges, and political dialogue. The expansion in 2017, with the inclusion of new members such as India and Pakistan, significantly redefined the organization’s regional influence and strategic dynamics.

The inclusion of India and Pakistan as full members marked a crucial turning point. Both nations are nuclear-armed states with complex bilateral relationships, and their accession transformed SCO into a more geopolitically significant organization. For China, the expansion reinforced its goal of fostering regional stability and cooperation amid rising geopolitical competition, particularly with India. The expanded membership enabled China to project influence across a broader geographical area and forge stronger ties with neighboring countries, leveraging SCO as part of its larger strategic framework, including Belt and Road and regional connectivity initiatives.

The expansion also introduced new challenges that could affect China’s role. With India’s economic and military rise and Pakistan’s strategic importance as a China-friendly neighbor, the organization’s dynamics became more complex. China’s role, therefore, had to adapt to accommodate India’s burgeoning influence and manage growing regional tensions. The organizational focus shifted more towards balancing these new dynamics while maintaining its core objectives of security cooperation and regional stability. China's leadership in coordinating initiatives within the SCO, such as joint military exercises and counter-terrorism efforts, became more nuanced as it navigated the competing interests of India, Pakistan, and other Central Asian states.

Furthermore, the expansion impacted China’s role in the organization by positioning it as a central actor in regional diplomacy. China used the SCO to promote its vision of regional order rooted in mutual respect for sovereignty, non-interference, and economic integration. This expansion provided a platform for China to advocate for greater influence in Central and South Asia, asserting itself as a regional leader capable of mediating complex geopolitical issues. It also allowed China to counterbalance Western influence by strengthening regional alliances and fostering economic connectivity under the SCO framework.

However, the inclusion of diverse and sometimes conflicting member interests also introduced challenges. The differing priorities—India’s desire for strategic independence and Pakistan’s alignment with China—demanded diplomatic finesse from China, which seeks to elevate its leadership role within the organization. As a result, China’s influence in SCO’s strategic decisions could be somewhat moderated by the need to accommodate new members’ concerns, yet it still retains significant sway due to its economic weight and regional leadership ambitions.

In summary, the 2017 expansion of the SCO has profoundly affected China’s role within the organization. It has elevated China’s status as a regional power and allowed it to leverage the SCO for strategic and economic gains. Still, it also necessitated diplomatic balancing to manage the varied interests of new members, a challenge China actively navigates to maintain its influence and to advance its vision of regional order. This expansion marks a strategic step toward China’s broader goal of increasing regional integration and asserting leadership in Eurasian affairs.

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