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1. Psychological research raises ethical concerns, especially regarding deception and harmful procedures. To mitigate these issues, experimenter design can incorporate informed consent where participants are fully aware of potential risks, debriefing afterward to clarify any deception used, and minimizing harm by using less invasive methods and providing support if distress occurs. Institutional review boards also evaluate research protocols to ensure ethical standards are maintained, safeguarding both human and animal subjects from unnecessary harm while allowing valid scientific inquiry.

2. The nature versus nurture debate in psychology explores whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) mainly shape human behavior. From current understanding, both influence development significantly, but environmental factors often have a more observable impact, especially in behaviors and skills learned through experience. Nonetheless, genetic predispositions can affect susceptibility to environmental influences, making the interplay complex. Overall, nurture appears to have a slightly more prominent role in shaping behavior, though both are integral.

3. During adolescence, identity formation is a crucial developmental period. Two key terms are "identity vs. role confusion," from Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages, which highlights the struggle to develop a stable sense of self, and "puberty," referring to the biological changes that prepare the body for adulthood. These processes influence self-awareness and social relationships, shaping an individual's progression toward maturity and independence during this period.

4. I recall being classically conditioned when I developed a fear of dogs after being bitten during childhood. The unconditioned stimulus was the dog bite, which naturally caused fear (unconditioned response). The neutral stimulus was the sight of a dog, initially not frightening. After repeated pairings, the sight of a dog became a conditioned stimulus, eliciting fear (conditioned response) even without a bite. This example illustrates how associative learning can influence emotional responses.

References

• Cherry, K. (2020). Classical conditioning. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning-2794863
• Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. W. W. Norton & Company.
• American Psychological Association. (2020). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. https://www.apa.org/ethics/code
• Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., & Krovetz, M. (2013). Psychology and life (20th ed.). Allyn & Bacon.
• Harvard University. (2022). Developmental stages. Harvard Extension School. https://www.extension.harvard.edu
• Myers, D. G. (2019). Psychology (12th ed.). Worth Publishers.
• Rescorla, R. A. (1988). Pavlovian conditioning: It’s not what you think. American Psychologist, 43(3), 151–160.
• Siegel, L. J. (2018). The lifetime course of criminal behavior: Evidence of change and stability. Wiley.
• Van der Flier, H. (2012). Human development: An overview. John Wiley & Sons.
• Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1), 1–14.