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Evaluate and discuss various aspects of early childhood development, including social behavior, attachment theories, educational philosophies, moral development, and psychological theories. Address specific concepts such as the elicitation of social smiles, attachment classifications, Montessori educational materials, critiques of Werner's theories, Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, contrasting philosophies of Locke and Rousseau, mechanisms of imprinting, the Montessori perspective on praise, Werner’s conceptions of microgenesis, Piaget’s developmental pace, and the distinctions between stages of moral reasoning.

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Child development encompasses a wide array of theories and observational findings about how children grow emotionally, cognitively, and socially. Early social behaviors, particularly social smiles, are fundamental indicators of social engagement and emotional maturity in infants. The elicitation of social smiles, as described in developmental psychology, primarily occurs through faces, especially those looking human and in the frontal position, which provide clear and recognizable social cues that infants are biologically predisposed to respond to (Kuhl, 2004). Such responses illustrate innate mechanisms that foster social bonding and attachment from the earliest stages of life.

Attachment theory offers insights into how these early bonds influence subsequent emotional regulation and social competence. Mary Ainsworth's classifications describe insecure-avoidant children as those who tend to avoid new situations but may cling to primary caregivers when necessary, reflecting an attachment style characterized by emotional distance and independence (Ainsworth et al., 1978). The insecure-avoidant pattern indicates an avoidance of closeness, often stemming from early interactions where caregivers may have been inconsistent or unresponsive, leading children to suppress attachment behaviors as a coping strategy (Bowlby, 1969).

Montessori educational materials incorporate the concept of "control of error," which allows children to independently recognize and correct their mistakes. This approach fosters self-correction and autonomy, enabling learners to engage in reflective practice without constant adult intervention (Lillard, 2011). The control of error in Montessori materials enhances intrinsic motivation and helps children develop confidence in their problem-solving abilities by guiding them toward mastery through self-assessment (Kahn, 2003).

According to Montessori philosophy, teachers should adopt a non-authoritarian role, mainly stepping back from direct instruction to allow children to explore and learn independently. This view encourages educators to serve as guides or facilitators rather than authoritative figures, fostering an environment where children develop self-discipline and intrinsic motivation (Standing, 2017). Teachers' demeanor should be supportive yet unobtrusive, promoting a classroom atmosphere conducive to autonomous learning.

The critique of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget's work by Werner focuses on the importance of dynamic developmental processes. Werner emphasized "microgenesis" as the ongoing, moment-to-moment unfolding of mental representations, emphasizing that development occurs through continuous, fluid changes rather than fixed stages. "Microgenetic mobility" refers to the capacity for rapid development within specific cognitive domains, illustrating how qualitative advances can transpire intensively within short periods (Werner, 1948). These concepts highlight the importance of observing children's learning processes over time, recognizing that developmental change can be both subtle and rapid, thus enriching our understanding of learning and adaptation.

In Kohlberg's moral development theory, the concept of a "moral community" posits that moral reasoning often progresses through dialogue and a shared moral atmosphere, moving children through stages of moral understanding. High school students, for instance, may demonstrate more sophisticated moral reasoning, especially from stage 2 to stage 3, reflecting increased concern for social approval and interpersonal relationships (Kohlberg, 1984). The trajectory of moral development indicates that higher stages involve principled reasoning beyond mere rule-following, emphasizing justice and ethical principles.

Contrasting views of Locke and Rousseau on child development highlight fundamental philosophical differences. Locke believed children are born as "tabula rasa," a blank slate shaped significantly by environmental influences, emphasizing discipline, moral education, and external guidance (Locke, 1693). Rousseau, on the other hand, argued that children are inherently noble and possess innate goodness, advocating for natural development free from societal constraints, with education serving to allow natural instincts to flourish (Rousseau, 1762). Rousseau promoted child-centered, experiential learning, emphasizing freedom and innate developmental instincts, whereas Locke emphasized structured, disciplined upbringing to shape character and intelligence.

Ethologists such as Lorenz described imprinting as a process where juvenile animals form strong attachments to a parent figure during a critical period after birth, recognizing specific features and behaviors as key identifiers (Lorenz, 1937). In human development, Bowlby extended this concept, observing that infants form initial attachments to caregivers through consistent interactions that resemble imprinting mechanisms seen in other species. Parallels include the emphasis on early bonding experiences, the importance of a responsive caregiver, and the lasting influence on social and emotional development (Bowlby, 1969). Such observations led Bowlby to propose that early attachment behaviors in humans serve adaptive functions similar to imprinting in animals, facilitating survival and social integration.

Montessori educators generally argue that praise is not necessarily essential for effective learning. Montessori believed that intrinsic motivation and the child's natural desire to learn are most effectively nurtured through self-correction and the development of independence (Lillard, 2011). Praising children's correct responses can sometimes lead to extrinsic motivation or dependence on external validation, potentially undermining their internal desire to explore and master concepts (Kohn, 1993). Montessori's emphasis on fostering internal motivation aligns with the belief that children learn best when they are encouraged to develop their own standards of success and self-awareness rather than relying on external praise.

Werner’s concepts of "microgenesis" and "microgenetic mobility" emphasize the fluid, real-time processes of development, where learning unfolds through subtle, often rapid changes. For example, a child's evolving understanding of conservation—understanding that quantity remains constant despite superficial changes—can be observed through microgenetic analysis, capturing the moment-by-moment shifts in reasoning (Werner, 1948). These ideas help educators and psychologists recognize that development can be highly nuanced, occurring in bursts or incremental steps, which informs more sensitive and tailored instructional approaches.

Critics of Piaget argue that his developmental stages assume a slower progression than what actual observations reveal, especially regarding object permanence, conservation, or moral reasoning development. For instance, some research shows that children can demonstrate understanding of object permanence earlier than Piaget suggested, especially with proper scaffolding (Baillargeon et al., 1985). Similarly, Piaget’s methods for teaching conservation—using specific tasks—may underestimate children's true capacities, as Kamii (1985) advocates for teaching practices that recognize faster cognitive development than Piaget's original findings. The Piagetian approach emphasizes active discovery learning, where children construct knowledge through interaction with their environment, making developmental stages a natural part of their growth process (Piaget, 1952).

In Kohlberg’s theory, conventional morality refers to the stage where individuals conform to social norms and seek social approval, emphasizing law, order, and maintaining social harmony. Postconventional morality, however, involves reasoning based on universal ethical principles, such as justice and human rights, which transcend societal rules. Individuals at this stage evaluate moral dilemmas through principled reasoning and are willing to challenge social conventions if they conflict with these higher principles. Kohlberg believed that progression from conventional to postconventional morality signifies moral maturity and a move toward autonomous moral judgment (Kohlberg, 1984).

References

• Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Baillargeon, R., Spelke, E. S., & Wasserman, S. (1985). Object permanence in young infants. Developmental Psychology, 21(2), 395–404.
• Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. Basic Books.
• Kahn, D. (2003). Montessori: A modern perspective. Routledge.
• Kohlberg, L. (1984). The philosophy of moral development: Moral stages and the moral personality. Harper & Row.
• Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A's, praise, and other bribes. Houghton Mifflin.
• Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 212–218.
• Lillard, P. (2011). Montessori: The science behind the genius. Oxford University Press.
• Lorenz, K. (1937). The companion in the bird's world. The Auk, 54(3), 245–273.
• Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. International Universities Press.
• Rousseau, J.-J. (1762). Emile, or On education. Basic Books (reprint).
• Standing, E. M. (2017). Maria Montessori: Her life and work. Routledge.
• Werner, H. (1948). Microgenesis and microdevelopment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1(2), 77–86.