Explain What Sociologist Howard S. Becker Meant

Explain what sociologist Howard S. Becker meant when he said, "it is not the act itself, but the reaction

This exam covers all readings, course activities, and lecture content assigned from Modules 01 through 06. Choose one of the five questions below. Write an essay response of words. In your response, be sure to refer to specific concepts from the readings, lecture notes, and/or discussions, and use these concepts to support your points. Please state the question prior to your answer.

Paper For Above instruction

Sociologist Howard S. Becker famously articulated the idea that "it is not the act itself, but the reaction to the act, that make something deviant." This perspective emphasizes the sociological understanding that deviance is not an inherent quality of certain behaviors but is instead socially constructed through societal reactions. In other words, societal norms and the responses they evoke are what define an act as deviant, rather than the behavior in isolation. For example, smoking marijuana may be considered normal in some cultures; however, it becomes deviant when society responds to it with criminal sanctions and moral condemnation. Becker's insight reveals that labels and reactions, such as police action, media portrayal, or social stigma, transform behaviors into social deviance by framing societal responses.

Distinguishing between individual and institutional discrimination is crucial in understanding social inequalities. Individual discrimination involves personal acts of prejudice or unequal treatment by individuals towards others based on social characteristics. For instance, a manager refusing to hire someone because of their race exemplifies individual discrimination. Conversely, institutional discrimination encompasses policies, practices, and procedures rooted in established practices that systematically disadvantage certain groups. An example is the historical exclusion of African Americans from mortgage lending or segregated schooling, which occurred through institutional policies. While individual discrimination is enacted by personal bias, institutional discrimination is embedded within social structures, making it less visible but often more pervasive.

These forms of discrimination differ significantly from prejudice and stereotypes. Prejudice refers to preconceived opinions or attitudes—often negative—toward a group based on little or no direct experience. Stereotypes are oversimplified, generalized beliefs about groups of people. For example, assuming that all teenagers are irresponsible reflects a stereotype. These cognitive biases may or may not translate into concrete discriminatory actions. In contrast, discrimination involves actual behavior that results in unequal treatment, often reinforced by societal structures and stereotypes.

Most relevant theory for understanding global inequality

Among the three theories of global stratification—modernization theory, dependency theory, and world-systems theory—world-systems theory offers the most comprehensive lens for understanding global inequality. This perspective, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, views the global economy as a single capitalist system divided into core, periphery, and semi-periphery nations. Core countries, like the United States and Western European nations, dominate global economic and political power, exploiting peripheral nations that provide raw materials and cheap labor. For example, multinational corporations often source cheap manufacturing from developing countries, perpetuating economic dependency and underdevelopment. Unlike modernization theory, which suggests that all societies follow a linear path towards development, or dependency theory, which emphasizes exploitation, world-systems theory explicitly depicts the interconnectedness and structural inequalities embedded within the global capitalist system. This approach highlights how historical processes, such as colonialism, continue to influence present-day inequality.

Functional theory on technological advances

Functionalist perspectives interpret technological advances as essential mechanisms that promote social stability and societal cohesion. From this view, technology serves functions such as improving efficiency, fostering communication, and solving societal problems. Specifically examining social networking via platforms like Facebook or Twitter reveals how these technological tools facilitate social integration by enabling instant communication across geographic boundaries. They support economic activities, enhance political activism, and provide platforms for social identity expression. However, functionalism also recognizes potential disruptions; for example, overreliance on social media can lead to social fragmentation or mental health issues, illustrating that technological advances have complex impacts on society's structure and stability.

Comparison of social movement theories: deprivation vs. resource mobilization

Deprivation theory and resource mobilization theory offer contrasting explanations for social movements. Deprivation theory posits that social movements arise from feelings of relative deprivation—when groups perceive a discrepancy between their expectations and reality, leading to dissatisfaction and collective action. For example, the Civil Rights Movement emerged as African Americans perceived systemic racial inequalities that prevented their social, economic, and political participation. The theory emphasizes grievances, frustration, and a sense of injustice as catalysts for mobilization.

Resource mobilization theory shifts focus to the importance of resources—money, labor, leadership, and organization—in sustaining social movements. It argues that successful movements depend on access to resources and strategic planning rather than merely grievances. For instance, the LGBTQ rights movement’s success was largely due to the mobilization of legal expertise, funding, and organizational networks. This theory highlights the importance of political opportunities and organizational capacity in movement success.

While deprivation theory underscores the importance of shared grievances, resource mobilization emphasizes the strategic deployment of resources to sustain collective action. Both theories are valuable; deprivation provides insight into the emotional and social roots of movements, whereas resource mobilization explains how movements translate grievances into sustained action and policy change.

References

• Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. Free Press.
• Gusfield, J. R. (1963). Symbols and Substance: Social Foundations of Police Choices. Social Problems, 11(2), 102–116.
• Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1848). The Communist Manifesto. Penguin Classics.
• Wallerstein, I. (1974). The Modern World-System I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. Academic Press.
• Giddens, A. (1984). The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration. University of California Press.
• Tilly, C. (2004). Social Movements, 1768–2004. Paradigm Publishers.
• Scott, J. (2012). Social Movements and Their Social Ties. Cambridge University Press.
• Castells, M. (2010). The Rise of the Network Society. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Macionis, J. J., & Plummer, K. (2012). Sociology: A Global Introduction. Pearson.
• Collins, R. (1994). Three Traditions in Comparative Perspective: The Conflict Perspective, the Functional Perspective, and the Interactionist Perspective. In Sociology: The Core (pp. 427–439). HarperCollins.