Final Exam Study Guide: Know The Meaning Of Equation Symbols

Final Exam Study Guide1 Know The Meaning Equation Symbol And Units

Final Exam Study Guide 1. Know the meaning, equation, symbol and units of density. Be able to use the equation to answer questions relating to density. 2. What does it mean to be ‘proportional to’ (α) and ‘inversely proportion to?’ 3. Be able to distinguish between speed, velocity and acceleration. In particular, know the following including knowing units. 4. Given an equation, describe how the dependent variable changes when the independent variables are adjusted. 5. Know the details of Newton’s 3 laws of motion. 6. What is the gravitational acceleration on Earth? 7. What is the difference between weight and mass? What are units for each? 8. What did Galileo say about falling objects? 9. What is a ‘force’ and ‘net force’ and know how they relate to acceleration. 10. What does Newton’s law of Gravitation say? 11. Know what the following are and know units. Be able to solve simple problems: a. Work b. Power 12. Know the definition of “Energy†and know what the following basic types of energy are dependent on. Know how to solve simple problems. a. Kinetic Energy b. Potential Energy 13. What does the “Law of Conservation of Energy†state? Be able to use this idea to solve simple problems. 14. What is the definition of temperature and what three temperature scales used? Which one is the absolute scale and why? 15. Know the process behind the 3 modes of heat transfer. a. Conduction b. Convection c. Radiation 16. Know the basics of the following type of energy sources, the advantages, disadvantages and whether it is renewable or nonrenewable. a. Nuclear (fission and fusion) b. Coal c. Gas d. Oil e. Biomass f. Geothermal g. Solar h. Wind i. Tide j. Hydroelectric k. Wave 17. What are the 3 phases of a substance? 18. Be able to identify the following components of a wave. a. Wavelength b. Amplitude and wave height c. Crest d. Trough e. Equilibrium position f. Period (know units) g. Frequency (know units) 19. Know the details of the 4 ways in which waves (light and sound) can interact with objects. a. Absorption b. Transmission c. Reflection d. Refraction 20. What makes up an atom and describe location, charge and relative size of each. Which of these is involved with electrical interactions? a. Electrons b. Protons c. Neutrons 21. What is an “ion?†22. What is the difference between AC and DC power? 23. Basically how is the magnetic field of our Earth set up and where are the north and south poles? How often does the Earth’s magnetic field change? 24. What is light and all other radiation composed of? 25. What determines one type of radiation from another? 26. What determines the energy of radiation emitted from an object? What does a higher energy say about the wavelength of that radiation? 27. What determines the color of an object? 28. What is meant by the colors black and white? 29. Given the Stefan-Boltzman law (E=σT4), determine how radiation is affected by a changing temperature. 30. How does the peak wavelength change as an object’s temperature changes? 31. What components make up an atom? 32. Which part of the atom is involved with chemical reactions? 33. What is an ‘isotope?’ 34. Using the Periodic Table, be able to identify the following for any given isotope a. Number of electrons b. Number of protons (same as atomic number) c. Number of neutrons d. Mass number (what atom is the reference) e. Atomic Weight (know how it is derived) 35. What do the columns of the Period Table tell you especially with regards to the number of electrons in the outer orbit? 36. What is an ‘orbital?’ 37. What are ‘noble gases’ and what can you say about their outer electrons? Where are they found on the periodic table? 38. What occurs during a ‘chemical reaction?’ What are the following? a. Reactant b. Products 39. Describe and be able to give some examples of the following: a. Ionic bond b. Covalent bond c. Polar covalent bond 40. Be able to identify the number of atoms in a given chemical formula. 41. Know how to derive a “molecular weight†given any compound. 42. What does the “Law of Conservation of Mass†state? 43. What is meant by the following terms: a. Mole b. Avogadro’s number 44. What bonds hold water together and be able to describe how each one works? Which one is weaker? a. Polar Covalent b. Hydrogen 45. What does the hydrogen bond due to the specific heat of water? 46. What is meant by solubility? What things affect the solubility of a liquid with respect to both solids and gases? What is “saturation?†47. Know what things can affect the freezing and boiling point of water. 48. What are acids, bases and salts? What are some characteristics of each? What happens when you add acids and bases together? 49. What is meant by the pH scale and what values do acids, bases and pure water have? What does it mean to go up or down one number in the pH scale? 50. Describe the 3 types of radioactive decay. How penetrating are each? 51. What is half-life, what can you do to change it and be able to solve a simple half- life problem (very similar to homework) 52. What is the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion? Which one of these runs our ‘current’ nuclear power plants? Which one runs our Sun and other stars? 53. Describe the nuclear fusion process: a. Elements involved b. How does the size of a star change the time it takes to burn up the fuel? c. How long will it take for our Sun to burn up its fuel? d. How long has the Sun been around so far? 54. How do stars end their lives? What about our Sun? 55. How does our Sun compare to other stars as far as size, age, and temperature? 56. What are the following? a. Red Giant b. White Dwarf c. Supernovae (know elements heavier than Iron are formed here) d. Neutron Stars e. Black Holes 57. What is a Galaxy? a. What galaxy do we live in? b. How many stars are in an average galaxy? c. How many galaxies are in the universe? 58. What is the Big Bang? a. What evidence pointed to this theory? b. What happens after the Big Bang? How does the density of the universe determine its ultimate fate? 59. Regarding our planets and moons: a. Know the ordering of our planets in the Solar System from closest to furthest. b. What does “Terrestrial Planet†and “Giant gas planet†mean and which planets fall under each category? c. Which planets have atmospheres? d. What is Pluto’s new classification and why? e. Which planet is the largest? Smallest? f. Which moon in our Solar System likely has a large ocean? 60. Know the characteristics of the following parts of a year a. Summer solstice b. Winter solstice c. Autumnal equinox d. Vernal equinox 61. What is the tilt of our Earth and how does it affect the following? a. Lengths of day and night b. Seasons 62. What is the Coriolis Effect and how does it influence the way things move on Earth? 63. How does latitude and longitude identify a location on a planet? 64. What is the ‘prime meridian’ and where is it located? Is this arbitrary? 65. What is the “equator†and where is it located? Is this arbitrary? 66. Identify the following and how are they significant? a. Arctic Circle b. Antarctic Circle c. Tropic of Cancer d. Tropic of Capricorn 67. Be able to identify the Sun’s location throughout the year. 68. What makes a Moon phase and what are the 4 basic types? 69. What is a lunar and solar eclipse? What phase will the Moon be in for each? 70. What affects the tides? What are Neap and Spring tides? 71. What are the 3 types of tides and what type does Miami experience? 72. What are the 3 main groups of rocks and make sure you know how each are formed. Which one is the most common? 73. What type of waves do earthquakes produce and how can they tell us what the interior of the planet looks like? What are P and S wave shadow zones? 74. How do the Oceanic and Continental crusts differ with regards to age, thickness, density and composition? Which part of the oceanic crust is the deepest? 75. Regarding plate tectonics, describe the following: a. Who proposed the theory? b. What was the name of the original land mass? c. What do the magnetic stripes on the seafloor tell us about plate tectonics and the magnetic field of Earth? 76. Regarding plate boundaries: a. What are the 3 types? b. How fast do plates typically move? c. What are subduction zones and what can they create? d. What is the difference between the following types of convergent boundaries? i. Continental-oceanic ii. Oceanic-oceanic iii. Continental-continental 77. Know how each of the following places are created: a. Japan b. San Andreas Fault c. Iceland d. Himalayan Mountains e. Hawaii 78. What top 2 fixed components make up our atmosphere? How are each created and removed from the atmosphere? 79. What are 2 important non-fixed components in our atmosphere and how are they created and removed? 80. What type of radiation does the Sun provide to the Earth? What type of radiation does the Earth re-radiate back out to space? 81. What is the greenhouse effect? 82. Be able to identify the regions of our atmosphere and describe the temperature changes in each. 83. How are winds created? 84. What is a seabreeze and land breeze? 85. How are global wind patterns set up? Be able to identify and describe the following: a. ITCZ (Doldrums) b. Trade winds c. Westerlies d. High and low pressure regions 86. What is an ‘air mass?’ 87. What are the various fronts and their characteristics? 88. What is a cyclone and anticyclone? How do winds spin around them in the northern hemisphere? 89. How does a hurricane gets its energy? 90. What and where are the major climate zones? What causes them? What types of features are found in these regions? 91. What 4 factors can locally change global climate patterns? a. Altitude b. Mountains c. Bodies of water d. Ocean currents 92. What is meant by the ‘thermohaline circulation?’ How does it affect Earth’s climate? 93. Know the characteristics and location of the following: a. Gulf Stream b. California Current 94. What is the Milankovitch Theory? 95. List the important greenhouse gases. 96. Describe our current CO2 concentrations and compare them to the past 420,000 years. 97. How do CO2 concentrations relate to Earth’s past temperature? 98. What primarily changes sea levels on Earth? 99. How are sea levels currently changing and how high can they go? 100. Describe the following feedback mechanisms: a. Water-vapor greenhouse feedback b. Snow-albedo feedback c. Cloud feedback d. Radiation feedback

Paper For Above instruction

The comprehensive understanding of physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth sciences covered in this study guide is essential for mastering the fundamentals of natural phenomena and scientific principles. This essay explores key concepts ranging from basic units and laws to celestial mechanics and climate systems, aiming to synthesize crucial knowledge for academic and practical applications.

Starting with fundamental physics, the concept of density is defined as mass per unit volume, expressed mathematically as ρ = m / V, with units typically in kg/m³ or g/cm³. The equations involve parameters that are proportional (denoted by α) or inversely proportional, which are crucial in understanding phenomena like the inverse square law in gravity or light intensity. Speed, velocity, and acceleration are vector and scalar quantities with units in m/s, m/s², respectively. Newton's laws describe how objects move and interact: the first law states that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force; the second law elaborates that force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma); the third law emphasizes action-reaction pairs. Earth's gravitational acceleration (approximately 9.8 m/s²) influences objects' motion and weight, which equals mass times gravitational acceleration, with units of newtons (N), whereas mass's unit is kilograms (kg). Galileo's experiments demonstrated that in a vacuum, objects fall at the same rate regardless of mass, challenging earlier notions regarding gravity.

For forces, Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force between two masses is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them (F = G (m1 m2) / r²). Work and power are energy-related quantities, with work defined as force times displacement (W = F * d) and power as work done per unit time (P = W / t). Energy manifests as kinetic energy (KE = ½ m v²) and potential energy (PE = m g h), and the law of conservation of energy asserts that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. Temperature, measured in Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit, has the Kelvin scale as absolute, based on the thermodynamic zero point where particles have minimal thermal motion.

Heat transfer modes include conduction (direct contact), convection (fluid movement), and radiation (emission of electromagnetic waves). Energy sources vary, with renewable options such as solar, wind, and hydro, fostering sustainable development, while nonrenewables like fossil fuels pose environmental concerns. The three phases of matter—solid, liquid, gas—affect properties like density and compressibility. Waves, characterized by wavelength, amplitude, crest, trough, period, and frequency, propagate energy through mediums; their interactions involve absorption, transmission, reflection, and refraction. Atoms comprise protons (positive charge), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negative charge), with electrons involved in electrical interactions. Ions are atoms with net charge, formed by gaining or losing electrons.

Power supply systems distinguish between AC (alternating current) and DC (direct current), with Earth's magnetic field generated by its core's geodynamo, featuring magnetic poles that periodically shift. Electromagnetic radiation—from gamma rays to radio waves—is distinguished by wavelength and energy; higher energy radiation has shorter wavelengths, evident in spectral analysis. The color of objects results from the wavelengths they reflect or emit. Stefan-Boltzmann law indicates radiant energy emission depends on temperature to the fourth power, with peak wavelength inversely proportional to temperature per Wien’s law.

Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons, with chemical reactions involving valence electrons. Isotopes have equal proton numbers but different neutron counts, affecting atomic mass. The periodic table's columns reveal outer electron counts, impacting chemical reactivity. Noble gases have complete outer electron shells, found in group 18, making them chemically inert.

Chemical bonding includes ionic bonds (transfer of electrons), covalent bonds (sharing electrons), and polar covalent bonds (unequal sharing). Molecules' molar mass is derived from atomic weights, relating to the Law of Conservation of Mass. Acids, bases, and salts differ in proton concentration, with pH scales measuring acidity or alkalinity; acids have pH7, and pure water pH=7. Radioactive decay occurs through alpha, beta, and gamma emissions, with half-life determining decay rate and stability. Nuclear fission splits heavy nuclei, powering current reactors; fusion combines light nuclei, fueling stars like the Sun.

Stars evolve through phases from main sequence to red giants, white dwarfs, supernovae, neutron stars, and black holes. Our Sun, roughly 4.6 billion years old, uses nuclear fusion of hydrogen, producing helium and energy. The universe's large-scale structure includes galaxies, with the Milky Way containing approximately 100 billion stars. The Big Bang theory, supported by cosmic microwave background radiation and galactic redshift, explains universe expansion and ultimate fate, which depends on density and dark energy.

Within solar system mechanics, planets defined as terrestrial or gas giants occupy distinct positions, with atmospheres of varying composition. Pluto's reclassification as a dwarf planet is due to its small size and orbital characteristics. Planetary features include the largest planet (Jupiter), smallest (Mercury), and moons with subsurface oceans, like Europa. Earth's tilt causes seasons, affecting daylight and climate patterns. The Coriolis effect influences wind and ocean currents by deflecting motion due to Earth's rotation.

Latitude and longitude coordinate locations precisely, with the prime meridian at Greenwich serving as an arbitrary reference. The Arctic and Antarctic Circles, tropics, and solstices define climatic zones and seasonal variations. The Sun's position varies throughout the year, causing the lunar phases, which result from the relative positions of Earth, Moon, and Sun. Eclipses occur when alignment causes shadows—solar when Moon blocks Sun, lunar when Earth blocks Moon. Tides, caused by gravitational interactions, include neap and spring tides, with the Moon's phases determining tidal ranges.

Geological processes such as rock formation involve the three main types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Seismic waves, especially P and S waves, reveal Earth's interior structure, with shadow zones indicating where waves are absorbed or refracted. Plate tectonics describes the movement of Earth's lithospheric plates, proposed by Alfred Wegener, with seafloor spreading evidenced by magnetic striping. Plate boundaries include divergent, convergent, and transform faults, creating features such as mountains, trenches, and earthquakes.

Volcanoes form at divergent and convergent margins like Japan and Hawaii, while fault systems like the San Andreas Fault exemplify transform boundaries. Earth's atmosphere mainly comprises nitrogen and oxygen, with trace gases like CO₂