Foundations And Theories Of Intercultural Communication

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What is culture? A recurring theme in intercultural communication is that the definition of “culture” varies, and clarity about what we refer to is essential for meaningful discussion and analysis. Mary Jane Collier, an esteemed scholar from the University of New Mexico, outlined several common perspectives on culture: as a geographic location where groups reside, as shared ancestry often linked to race, as art and artifacts representing creative expressions, as economic resources or capital, as commodities like foods, films, or music, as political structures and ideologies that maintain power, and as a group identity.

Despite differing definitions, there is consensus on some core characteristics of culture. Firstly, culture is learned and not innate; humans share basic behaviors and emotions such as eating, feeling anger or happiness, and progressing through life stages, but these are expressed differently based on cultural learning. For example, expressions of emotion or rituals for transitions vary significantly across diverse cultural contexts. Secondly, culture is transmitted across generations; values, habits, and principles are communicated and reinforced over time within communities. Thirdly, culture relies on symbols – verbal and non-verbal cues, images, and icons that humans create and interpret, enabling shared understanding. Lastly, culture is dynamic; it evolves over time and is influenced by internal and external forces, reflecting the changing nature of societies.

The importance of studying intercultural communication lies in several compelling reasons, as articulated by Judith Martin and Thomas Nakayama. The technological imperative highlights how advances in electronic media and increasing mobility have expanded intercultural interactions, necessitating understanding across cultures. The demographic imperative points to shifting populations, especially in the United States, where increasing immigration from Latin America and Asia reshapes social and workforce dynamics. The economic imperative emphasizes that globalization has interconnected markets globally, making intercultural competence vital for business and economic development.

Furthermore, the peace imperative underscores the importance of understanding and appreciating cultural differences to foster international peace and reduce conflicts, including hate crimes. The self-awareness imperative suggests that engaging with other cultures leads to a deeper understanding of one’s own cultural identity and societal positioning. The ethical imperative emphasizes that cultural perceptions of ethics vary, and intercultural understanding involves developing self-reflexivity, empathy, and social justice (Martin & Nakayama, 1999). Recognizing and addressing power differentials, as discussed by Moon (2002), reveals that some cultures hold dominant positions, shaping cultural narratives and influencing perceptions of marginalized groups.

Moon (2002) advocates viewing culture as a contested zone—an arena of ongoing struggles among different groups for recognition and power. Understanding these dynamics allows us to appreciate the complexities of cultural life and relationships, emphasizing that cultures are not monolithic but fluid and often contested spaces. Thus, cultural studies must acknowledge power asymmetries and encourage respectful engagement with diverse cultural perspectives.

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Intercultural communication is fundamentally rooted in understanding the concept of culture and its multifaceted nature. Culture influences how people perceive the world, communicate, and relate with others; therefore, comprehensive understanding of its diverse definitions and characteristics is vital for navigating intercultural interactions effectively.

As Collier (2003) and others have elucidated, culture encompasses various aspects such as geographical residence, shared ancestry, artistic expressions, economic resources, commodities, political ideologies, and group identity. This broad spectrum indicates that culture cannot be confined to a single definition but must be examined from multiple angles, depending on context and purpose. For example, when focusing on cultural identities, shared ancestry and ethnicity often take precedence; while in economic or political analyses, other aspects like resources or ideologies might be more relevant.

Understanding that culture is learned and transmitted across generations is crucial because it explains how traditions, values, and behaviors persist and evolve over time. For instance, cultural practices associated with rites of passage or social norms are passed down, shaping collective identities over decades or centuries. Moreover, culture relies heavily on symbols—verbal language, gestures, images—that convey meaning and foster shared understanding within groups.

An essential feature of culture is its fluidity; societies and cultures are constantly subject to change due to internal developments and external influences like globalization, migration, or technological advancement. As Moon (2002) emphasizes, viewing culture as a contested zone underscores its dynamic and often contentious nature. Different groups may compete for recognition, representation, and influence within cultural spheres, leading to tensions and negotiations that shape cultural identities and power relations.

The study of intercultural communication is driven by several imperative reasons. The technological imperative centers on how digital media accelerates intercultural exchanges, making it imperative for individuals and organizations to develop intercultural competence. The demographic imperative highlights shifts such as increasing diversity within nations like the United States, with significant immigration flows from Latin America and Asia, resulting in increasingly multicultural societies.

Economically, globalization intertwines different national markets, labor forces, and cultural products, demanding effective intercultural communication skills for business success. The peace imperative, as articulated by Martin and Nakayama (1999), emphasizes that understanding diverse cultural perspectives and cultivating empathy are essential in reducing misunderstandings and conflict, especially in a world rife with political and social tensions.

Furthermore, self-awareness fostered through intercultural engagement enables individuals to reflect critically on their own cultural assumptions and biases. Such reflective capacity is integral for promoting mutual respect and social justice, especially in contexts where cultures—ordinate and subordinate—interact. Recognizing the influence of power relations and cultural contestations, as Moon (2002) advocates, reveals that cultural identities are not fixed but are often sites of struggle and negotiation. This perspective enforces the need for culturally sensitive approaches in intercultural discourse, promoting equitable dialogue and mutual understanding.

In summary, intercultural communication hinges on a nuanced understanding of culture as a complex, evolving, and contested phenomenon. Scholars and practitioners must appreciate the multi-layered aspects of culture, acknowledge the power dynamics involved, and foster respectful engagement across differences. Such an approach enhances interpersonal relationships, supports effective international cooperation, and contributes to a more just and peaceful global society.

References

• Collier, M. J. (2003). Understanding cultural identities in intercultural communication: A ten-step inventory. In S. Samovar & R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (10th ed., pp. 16-33). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
• Martin, J., & Nakayama, T. (1999). Thinking dialectically about culture and communication. Communication Theory, 9(1), 1-25.
• Moon, D. G. (2002). Thinking about "culture" in intercultural communication. In J. N. Martin et al. (Eds.), Readings in intercultural communication: Experiences and contexts (2nd ed., pp. 13-20). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
• Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.
• Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Geert Hofstede. (2010). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012). Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
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• Aziz, A. (2005). Cross-cultural communication for global business. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(4), 550-560.
• Gannon, M. J., & Pillai, R. (2013). Understanding Global Cultures: Metaphorical Journeys Through 26 Nations, Clusters of Nations, Continents, and Diversity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.