Havicarel Discusses How Two Philosophers Descartes And Merle

Havicareldiscusses How Two Philosophers Descartes And Merleau Pon

Havi Carel examines two influential philosophers, René Descartes and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, to analyze their differing perspectives on the mind-body relationship. Descartes, often regarded as the father of modern philosophy, endorses a dualistic view where the mind and body are distinct entities. He posits that the mind is an immaterial thinking substance, whereas the body is a material extension in space, and that the mind can exist independently of the body. This Cartesian dualism emphasizes rational consciousness and sees the body primarily as a machine or vessel for the mind.

In contrast, Merleau-Ponty offers a phenomenological perspective that emphasizes bodily experience and perception as fundamental to human existence. For him, the body is not merely a biological machine but the primary site through which humans engage with the world. He articulates a concept of the "lived body" that integrates bodily perception, intentionality, and consciousness, rejecting the strict separation between mind and body proposed by Descartes. Merleau-Ponty asserts that consciousness is inseparable from bodily experience, emphasizing embodied perception as the foundation of understanding and experience.

Havi Carel expresses her own philosophical preference for Merleau-Ponty's view. She values the notion of the lived body because it provides a richer, more integrated understanding of human existence, especially in the context of illness. Her focus on phenomenology allows her to explore how bodily experiences shape identity and consciousness, which she finds more compelling and applicable to understanding health and illness than Cartesian dualism.

What’s the difference between the "biological body" and the "lived body," according to Havi Carel?

Havi Carel distinguishes the "biological body" from the "lived body" as two interconnected but distinct concepts. The biological body refers to the physical, biological, and anatomical aspects—the body as an object studied scientifically. It encompasses the physiological processes, tissues, and systems that sustain life. The lived body, meanwhile, is the subjective experience of being in and through one's body—the embodied sense of self and consciousness that arises from bodily perception and awareness.

Carel uses this distinction to interpret the experience of illness by emphasizing that illness affects not just the biological functions of the body but also the lived experience of being in that body. When someone is ill, their biological functions may be compromised, but the impact extends to how they perceive, feel, and relate to their body subjectively. Her phenomenological approach underscores that health involves a harmony between the biological and lived experiences of the body, and illness disrupts this harmony, altering both bodily functioning and subjective perception.

How does the ADA define disability? Give an example of something that clearly counts as a disability on this definition and briefly explain why.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) defines disability as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, a record of such impairment, or being regarded as having such an impairment. For example, paraplegia, the loss of voluntary motor function in the lower limbs, clearly qualifies as a disability under the ADA because it significantly impairs mobility, a major life activity.

As Anita Silvers explains it, how does Norm Daniels characterize "normal function"? What defines normal functioning, and why is it important for healthcare?

Norman Daniels characterizes "normal function" as the typical or customary operation of a biological or physiological process in the human body. It is defined relative to the average functioning observed within the population, considering age and sex-specific norms. Normal functioning is crucial for healthcare because it helps determine what constitutes health and illness; deviations from typical function can indicate disease or disability. By establishing a baseline for what is normal, healthcare providers can diagnose, treat, and rehabilitate patients more effectively.

What is the difference between a person's mode of functioning vs. level of functioning?

According to Anita Silvers, the mode of functioning refers to the manner or pattern in which a person’s body operates—whether it is typical or atypical, or whether it employs certain strategies or compensations. The level of functioning indicates the degree or extent of bodily capacity or performance—whether it is high or low, regardless of how the function is achieved.

An example of someone with an abnormal mode of functioning but a high level of functioning might be a person who uses a prosthetic limb (an atypical mode) but runs marathons (a high level). Conversely, a person with a normal mode of functioning but low level of functioning could be an elderly individual with mild cognitive decline who still engages socially and performs daily tasks adequately, reflecting a typical mode but reduced capacity.

What does it mean to be healthy? What does it mean to be sick or ill? And is there an important difference between feeling sick/healthy vs. being sick/healthy?

To be healthy is generally understood as being in a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Being sick or ill involves experiencing symptoms or conditions that impair normal functioning and may threaten well-being. Havi Carel’s phenomenology of illness emphasizes that health and illness are not solely biomedical states but involve subjective experiences and perceptions.

There is a significant distinction between feeling sick or healthy and actually being sick or healthy. Feeling healthy or sick is about subjective perception and sensation, which can fluctuate or be influenced by psychological factors. In contrast, being healthy or ill considers the objective biological state and functionality of the body and mind. A person might feel healthy but have underlying pathology, or conversely, feel unwell but be biologically healthy—highlighting the complex interplay between perception and biological reality in health and illness.

References

• Carel, H. (2016). The Phenomenology of Illness. Routledge.
• Descartes, R. (1641). Meditations on First Philosophy.
• Merleau-Ponty, M. (1945). Phenomenology of Perception. Routledge.
• Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. § 12102.
• Silvers, A. (2004). Freedom, disability, and biomedical research: of bodies and selves. Hypatia, 19(2), 73-92.
• Daniels, N. (2000). Normative implications of models of health: Normal functioning and the capacity to function. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 25(4), 307-319.
• World Health Organization. (2001). International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF).
• Zola, I. K. (1972). Pathways to the doctor—The patient’s view. Social Science & Medicine, 6(4), 397–404.
• Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish. Vintage Books.
• Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196(4286), 129–136.