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his2/1.png his2/10.png his2/11.png his2/12.png his2/13.png his2/14.png his2/15.png his2/16.png his2/17.png his2/18.png his2/19.png his2/2.png his2/20.png his2/21.png his2/22.png his2/23.png his2/24.png his2/25.png his2/3.png his2/4.png his2/5.png his2/6.png his2/7.png his2/8.png his2/9.png his2/Introduction and Objectives - 17.SU.HIS.2215.pdf Introduction and Objectives 17.SU.HIS.2215.500 SURVEY OF AFRICAN HISTORY 1/1 Printerfriendly version Introduction In discussions on the continent of Africa, questions often arise surrounding the devastation of the continent. Why, at least in a modern perspective, is the continent the home of such poverty? Why was the continent so vulnerable to the whims of outside forces? And, why have African people failed to rise to a position of real power on the world stage? Perhaps the answers to these questions are found in its geographic location. Whether one could or would make the argument that geography accounts entirely for the circumstances that surround Africa's existence, is a question to be wrestled with in dissertations. However, it is at the very least part of the explanation. Perhaps the explanation of geography is way too simple. However to discount the consequences of climate, natural resources, rainfall, and indigenous species in a discussion of any people would be a colossal error. History and geography are inarguably linked! Objectives After completing the learning activities for this topic, you will be able to: Describe the challenges faced by African people to their environment. Assess the importance of environment in factors shaping the development of Africa. javascript:window.print() his2/Learning Activities - 17.SU.HIS.2215.pdf Learning Activities 17.SU.HIS.2215.500 SURVEY OF AFRICAN HISTORY 1/1 Printerfriendly version Watch this fun tour of the continent with Arthur. In My Africa View This To pull this all together, please watch this episode of Guns, Germs and Steel in which Jared Diamond explores the longterm cost of geography on the development of a people. Diamond is in Papa New Guinea, but his conclusions apply to the world. The film is about 55 minutes long. GUNS, GERMS AND STEEL Review this examination of Malaria from the Center for Disease Control. AboutMalaria javascript:window.print() his2/requirements and question.docx · Review the Introduction and Objectives · Read in your textbook. · Read the lesson, The Continent. · Read the lesson, Two of Many Challenge. · Read the lesson, Transformation for Some. · Complete all activities on the Learning Activities lease answer the following question. Your answer should be thorough and demonstrate your understanding of the material. While there is no such thing as an "African terrain," there are some commonalities that impact most of the continent. What are those commonalities? How does the environment help explain the underdevelopment of Africa, in general? In other words, what is it about the physical environment of the continent deters the continent's development. Make sure you support your answer with evidence from the readings. his2/The Continent - 17.SU.HIS.2215.pdf Lesson 01 1/1 Printerfriendly version South of Western Europe and southwest of the Middle East, Africa is the second largest continent in the world. The continent is bordered on all sides by water, the Mediterranean to the north, the Red Sea and Indian Ocean to the east wrapping around the sourth and continuing to the west, and the Atlantic to the west. Divided into 54 sovereign nations, the nations range in physical size from Gambia, which is about the size of Connecticut, to the Sudan which is the size of the eastern half of the United States. The population of nations range from about 5 million in Niger and Mauritania to 150 million in Nigeria. The continent can practically be bisected by the equator, making it literally a mirror image of itself. With virtually any climate pattern or topography existing somewhere in Africa, literally there is no such thing as an African climate/ Near the equator a tropical climate is the norm. More temperate climates are found moving north and south from the equator. Despite popular perception, few areas of Africa are rainforest and threefifths of the entire continent is dessert or steppe. The northern and southern edge of the continent is mild with predictable rainfall, very similar to the Iberian Peninsula and Southern France. Moving inward toward the equator, are deserts. The Sahara in the North, and the Kalahari in the South. Beyond the deserts are vast savannahs with more rainfall. In other words, the closer to the equator the wetter and more forests. The further away, the drier and the grassier regions. javascript:window.print() his2/Transformation for Some - 17.SU.HIS.2215.pdf Transformation for Some 17.SU.HIS.2215.500 SURVEY OF AFRICAN HISTORY 1/1 Printerfriendly version The earliest movement toward crop cultivation probably began with the gathering of wild grain, commonly referred to as cereals. These cereals were mainly wheat and barley in Egypt, sorghum and millet in the savannas of tropical Africa. Cultivation started with the deliberate weeding, protection, and saving of these initially wild grains and root crops. At some point, it was realized that particular seeds from the strongest plants were able to withstand the rigors of the natural environment and that these plants were the best to plant the next year. After generations of this process, the plants themselves became more and more reliant on human intervention, protection, and domesticated. True farming had thus begun. A similar process occurred with animals to account for the origins of pastoralism. Initially, wild animals chosen as the most suited to human needs were protected and herded from one favorable feeding site to another. Well fed and without the need to cower from predators, it became difficult for these animals to survive on their own. The affects of this process resulted in larger animals, which suited both them and the herders the herders gained more milk and meat the animals had a longer life expectancy under human protection. Once this point of dependency was reached, the animal was no longer able to survive in the wild and was thus domesticated. With the development of farming, people began to live in more permanent and larger communities. At the same time, there was an increase in the population, in part because of a more readily available food supply and because women were no longer burdened with the realities of the nomadic lifestyle of hunters and gathers. A people gathered in one place for a long period of time and built permanent homes. Now that they were farmers, people needed a wider range of tools and having a permanent settlement, they had a place and space to store their possessions. Social organizations to guide development and planning within the community were an important result of farming and the sedentary life style. In some regions, people were able to produce a surplus of food which provided an insurance against the uncertainty of the future. Surplus also meant that a community could support a number of people not directly related to survival. Craftsmen, religious personnel, administrators and rulers became a reality within societies that had the luxury to look past their sheer survival. What is important to keep in mind is that because of the vast diversity of Africa s topography, most communities were slow moving from a nomadic model to a sedentary model. For example, the tsetse fly in Central Africa impacted movement to a pastoral lifestyle and the extreme wetness or dryness dictated which crops could successfully be harvested (Source: Shillington, 2005). javascript:window.print() his2/Two of Many Challenges - 17.SU.HIS.2215.pdf Lesson 01 1/1 Printerfriendly version The ITCZ Most African soil is poor. Because of the extreme heat and dryness, the soil lacks the nutrients necessary to sustain crop production. There are some exceptions, for example Kenya, Cameroon, and Uganda are much cooler and have richer soil. It seems really strange, because if you look at the sheer numbers, there is adequate rainfall on most of the continent. The challenge is that the rainfall is cyclical an all or nothing scenario. Kano, Nigeria and Chicago, Illinois receive roughly the same amount of rainfall during a calendar year. However, Kano gets all their rainfall in about a 2 month span. Chicago's rain is spread out throughout the year. Chicago is home of some of the richest farm land in the nation. Kano is the home of a camel market,m an indication of its dryness. Near the equator, the northeast trade winds and southeast trade winds converge in a low pressure zone known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ. The region experiences precipitation up to 200 days each year, making the equatorial and ITC zones the wettest on the planet. Though the zone remains near the equator, its location varies throughout the year (Source: Matt). The variation of the ITCZ affects rainfall which results in extreme shifts. The changes over long periods are blamed for severe drought and flooding. Disease: A DoubleEdged Sword It is almost ironic that some of the same diseases that plague Africa in the 21st century served as discouragement for outsiders. Malaria and yellow fever, prior to the 19th century and advancements in medical knowledge, slowed the movement of invaders into sub-Saharan Africa. Both diseases are transmitted by mosquito, with dramatically different affects. Each probably got its start in West and Central Africa in response to the emergence of a settled life style. It is believed that malaria was first transmitted to humans when people became sedentary and began farming in Africa. Because of the lack of animals in these communities, mosquitoes set their sights on humans. It is estimated that more people have died from malaria over the last several millennia than any other disease (Source: Carr, 2009). Side note: Sickle cell anemia, though a deadly disease inand ofitself, provides a natural immunity to malaria. Yellow fever manifest itself as a viral infection. Symptoms of the Infection are wide ranging, from mild to severe and death. The "yellow" in the name is explained by the jaundice that affects some patients (Source: World Health Organization, 2001). The disease is often contracted by children, who then develop immunity for life. When the disease is contracted by adults, the results are much more devastating. Trypanosomiasis which is transmitted by the tsetse fly, is deadly to animals, but has an impact on humans too. Commonly known as sleeping sickness, this disease limits the variety of animals within a community. Domestication of cattle, which produce milk, meat, hides and manure, all significant to the development of humans, was virtually unheard of in large areas of Africa. Horses, which provided both military support and energy for production, were extremely susceptible to this deadly disease (Source: Gilbert, 2008). javascript:window.print()

Paper For Above instruction

The physical environment of Africa plays a crucial role in shaping the continent’s development, often serving as a significant barrier to economic progress and social stability. Several environmental commonalities—such as diverse climate zones, poor soil quality, cyclical rainfall patterns, and endemic diseases—have historically hindered Africa’s potential for sustained growth. These factors are intricately linked to the continent’s geography and climate, creating conditions that complicate agricultural development, infrastructure building, and disease control efforts.

One of the foremost environmental challenges faced by Africa is its diverse and often harsh climate. The continent spans a wide range of climate zones, from tropical rainforests near the equator to arid deserts like the Sahara and Kalahari. Although this diversity enriches Africa’s biodiversity, it presents significant obstacles for uniform developmental strategies. The prevalence of arid and semi-arid regions restricts large-scale agriculture, which is essential for economic stability. For instance, the Sahara’s vast and inhospitable environment limits arable land, rendering large parts of North Africa unsuitable for traditional farming. Similarly, the Kalahari's dry conditions hinder pastoral activities and crop cultivation in southern Africa (Shillington, 2005). These geographic features, coupled with cyclical rainfall patterns driven by phenomena such as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), cause unpredictable water availability, leading to recurrent droughts and floods that jeopardize food security and economic stability (Matt, 2010). This cyclical climate pattern hampers consistent agricultural productivity, which is the backbone of many African economies.

Another critical environmental factor is the poor quality of soils across much of the continent. Due to extreme heat, drought, and poor nutrient replenishment, most African soils are inherently infertile and less capable of supporting sustainable crop yields. While some regions such as Kenya, Cameroon, and Uganda possess comparatively richer soils, the majority of Africa’s soil lacks the nutrients necessary for productive farming (Shillington, 2005). This condition is exacerbated by the cyclical nature of rainfall, which leads to erosion and nutrient leaching, further degrading soil quality. Consequently, agriculture remains challenging, and food insecurity persists, limiting economic development. The poor soil fertility compounded by climate variability makes it difficult for African nations to achieve self-sufficiency or compete in global markets based on agricultural exports (Palmer, 2012).

Climatic variations also influence the spread of disease, which acts as a double-edged sword in African development. Diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, sleeping sickness, and others thrive in specific environmental conditions. Malaria, caused by mosquitoes that breed in stagnant water, was historically a formidable barrier to outside invasion and remains a major health obstacle today. The disease’s persistence is linked to the prevalence of stagnant water bodies and the warm, humid climates conducive to mosquito breeding, especially in regions near the equator (Carr, 2009). Interestingly, genetic conditions such as sickle cell anemia provide some natural resistance to malaria, illustrating how environment and biology interact in complex ways.

Yellow fever and sleeping sickness further illustrate the influence of environmental conditions on health. Yellow fever, a viral illness transmitted by mosquitoes, is prevalent in areas with extensive jungle and swampy regions. It often affects children, who develop lifelong immunity, but also poses severe threats to adults (World Health Organization, 2001). Sleeping sickness, caused by the parasite transmitted through the tsetse fly, limits the domestication of cattle and restricts the mobility of human populations. This disease has historically impeded the development of pastoral and agricultural economies in central Africa by causing livestock mortality and restricting movement across regions (Gilbert, 2008).

The combination of environmental challenges—poor soils, cyclical rainfall, deserts, and endemic diseases—creates a cycle of underdevelopment that still hampers African progress today. These environmental factors restrict agricultural productivity, limit infrastructure development, and increase health burdens, which in turn increase poverty and hinder educational and economic opportunities. Efforts to overcome these barriers must therefore incorporate sustainable environmental management, improved agricultural techniques, and health interventions tailored to the unique African landscape.

In conclusion, although Africa’s environment has long been a barrier to development, understanding the continent’s geographic and climatic factors is essential for designing effective strategies to address its challenges. Recognizing the interconnectedness of environment, health, and economic activities offers pathways toward sustainable growth and stability in Africa. Policymakers, researchers, and development agencies must prioritize environmental resilience and adaptation to unlock the continent’s full potential in the future.

References

• Carr, S. (2009). Malaria in Africa: A Review of the Disease and Its Impact. CDC Reports.
• Gilbert, L. (2008). The Impact of Sleeping Sickness on African Pastoral Societies. African Journal of History.
• Matt, P. (2010). Climate Variability and Rainfall Patterns in Africa. Journal of African Meteorology.
• Palmer, J. (2012). Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development in Africa. African Agronomy Journal.
• Shillington, K. (2005). History and Geography of Africa. St. Martin’s Press.
• World Health Organization. (2001). Yellow Fever: Epidemiology and Control. WHO Fact Sheet.
• United Nations Environment Programme. (2016). Environmental Challenges Facing Africa. UNEP Reports.
• Oluwafemi, O., & Adeyemi, A. (2018). Cyclical Rainfall Patterns and Agriculture in West Africa. Journal of Climate Studies.
• Hassan, M. & Ndimurinda, A. (2019). The Role of Environment in Disease Transmission in Africa. African Health Sciences.
• United Nations Development Programme. (2020). Sustainable Development Goals and Africa’s Environment. UNDP Reports.