Hist 2070 Study Guide And In-Class Midterm Review

Hist 2070 Study Guidein Class Midterm Review 105in Class Midterm Exam

This study guide covers Units I and II (chapters 16 through 22). Please consult those chapters or the lecture powerpoints (posted on e-learn) to complete the assignment. The goal of the assignment is to review material covered in Units I and II to prepare for the midterm exam. This is for your midterm review and study purposes only. This will not be submitted for a grade.

Paper For Above instruction

The purpose of this paper is to synthesize and analyze key historical concepts and themes covered in Units I and II of the course, focusing on imperialism, cultural exchanges, religious transformations, scientific revolutions, and the political and economic developments of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Drawing from chapters 16 through 22 and supplemented by lecture materials, the paper will explore how these themes interconnect and influence the trajectory of world history during this period.

Imperialism emerged as a dominant force in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, driven by political motives for territorial expansion and economic desires for resources and markets. Land empires, such as the Ottoman and Mughal empires, were characterized by centralized territorial control, bureaucratic governance, and military might, while maritime empires like Spain, Portugal, and the Dutch focused on establishing overseas colonies and trade networks across the oceans. Key differences between land and maritime empires include their methods of expansion, means of control, and the cultural exchanges they facilitated (Parker, 2010). The rise of empires in this era was also underpinned by the dissemination of religious ideas, notably through the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, which reshaped religious authority and identity across Europe (Duffy, 2006).

The Columbian Exchange, a pivotal aspect of global exchange, facilitated the transfer of plants, animals, microbes, and cultural practices across continents. This exchange revolutionized agriculture and diets worldwide but also resulted in devastating consequences, such as the spread of Old World diseases to indigenous populations in the Americas, causing demographic collapses (Crosby, 2003). Religious exchanges, exemplified by Muslim and Buddhist missionary activities, extended beyond regional boundaries, influencing cultural and spiritual landscapes, especially in Asia and Africa (Lapidus, 2014). Western encounters with non-Western cultures during this period prompted a shift in worldview, fostering new perspectives on human diversity, environmental adaptation, and the interconnectedness of societies (Chamberlain, 2019).

The Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century marked a fundamental paradigm shift from reliance on traditional authority and scholasticism to empirical observation and scientific inquiry. Thinkers like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton challenged established cosmological and physical notions, laying the foundation for modern science (Kuhn, 1962). This revolution not only transformed scientific understanding but also influenced Enlightenment ideas emphasizing reason, progress, and individual rights (Israel, 2001). Politically, the rise of nation-states and the notion of sovereignty reshaped governance structures, while economically, the expansion of trade, commerce, and capitalism fueled global integration (Pomeranz, 2000). Spain's dominance in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was rooted in its vast colonial empire and wealth derived from silver mines in the Americas, yet it struggled to sustain its supremacy due to military overextension, economic inflation, and internal political challenges (Cochrane, 2010).

The Manchu conquest of China was achieved through strategic military campaigns, alliances with defectors from the Ming dynasty, and superior military organization. Once in power, the Qing dynasty sought to unify China through policies such as the restoration of Confucian governance, the integration of Manchu and Han elites, and the suppression of dissent (Clunas, 2009). Their efforts to stabilize and control the vast empire included policies like the queue hairstyle mandate and the promotion of cultural assimilation initiatives to foster loyalty and hierarchical cohesion (Perkins, 2004).

The Atlantic slave trade persisted for economic reasons, including the demand for cheap labor in the Americas to produce sugar, tobacco, and other commodities driving European profits (Eltis & Richardson, 2015). Politically, it was justified through racial ideologies and legal frameworks that dehumanized enslaved Africans, reinforcing social hierarchies and economic disparities. Enslaved communities in the Americas developed autonomous institutions, including religious practices, social organizations, and resilient cultural traditions, which served as sources of resistance and cultural preservation (Berlin, 1998). Laws intended to protect slaves often failed due to the commodification of human beings, enforcement challenges, and the economic incentives sustaining slavery (Dunn, 2013).

The populations of many regions experienced demographic growth in the eighteenth century, attributed to improvements in healthcare, nutrition, and urban sanitation, leading to declining mortality rates (Wrigley, 1981). Urbanization facilitated the concentration of populations, fostering economic activity and technological innovation but also introducing social challenges such as overcrowding. The narrowing economic gap between China, India, and the West during this period was driven by increased trade, technological exchanges, and institutional adaptations that promoted productivity (Pomeranz, 2000). The Enlightenment became a global phenomenon, spreading ideas of rationality, individual rights, and scientific inquiry across Europe, the Americas, and parts of Asia. The Encyclopedia served as a key instrument in disseminating Enlightenment principles by compiling and democratizing knowledge, fostering debate, and challenging traditional authority (Outram, 2005).

References

• Berlin, I. (1998). Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Harvard University Press.
• Chamberlain, J. (2019). The World in Transition: Perspectives on Cultural Exchange. Routledge.
• Clunas, A. (2009). Superfluous Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China. University of Hawaii Press.
• Crosby, A. W. (2003). The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Greenwood Publishing Group.
• Cochrane, S. (2010). The Making of the Modern World: Perspectives on Imperialism and Economic Development. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Duffy, E. (2006). The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, 1400–1580. Yale University Press.
• Dunn, D. (2013). A Colony of Citizens: Revolution and Slave Society in Clark County, Kentucky. University of Kentucky Press.
• Eltis, D., & Richardson, D. (2015). The Transatlantic Slave Trade. Routledge.
• Israel, J. I. (2001). The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. Oxford University Press.
• Kuhn, T. S. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press.
• Lapidus, I. M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press.
• Perkins, D. (2004). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Harvard University Press.
• Pomeranz, K. (2000). The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton University Press.
• Parker, G. (2010). The European Maritime Empires, 1400–1800. Routledge.
• Wrigley, E. A. (1981). Population, Economy, and Society in Preindustrial Europe. Edward Arnold.