Homework 2 – GEOL 1405 / ENVR 1401 Due March 8

Homework 2 – GEOL 1405 / ENVR 1401 Due Thursday, March 8th Covers chapters 5, 6 and 8 - 11 of your textbook

Complete the following set of questions based on chapters 5, 6, and 8 through 11 of your textbook. Provide detailed, well-organized answers in 3-4 pages. Your responses should demonstrate comprehension of key environmental concepts, including ecosystem services, external costs, market failure, indices measuring economic wellbeing, environmental laws, soil conservation, agricultural practices, pollution, biodiversity, climate change, and environmental policies. Do not include citations; write your responses in a clear, concise, and cohesive manner, integrating your knowledge and understanding of the topics.

Paper For Above instruction

The landscape of environmental science is rich with interconnected concepts that reveal the intricate balance between human activities and natural systems. This assignment explores fundamental topics that are vital for understanding sustainability, environmental policy, and ecological health.

One of the simplest yet most profound ecosystem services provided freely by nature is air purification. Forests, wetlands, and various terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems filter pollutants, providing clean air essential for human health and biodiversity. Such services are valuable not only for their ecological importance but also for their economic benefit, highlighting that natural systems often operate without direct monetary cost to societies. Humans tend to bear the external costs of environmental degradation caused by industries. These costs, which include health impacts, loss of biodiversity, and climate change effects, are usually shifted onto society through increased healthcare costs, reduced agricultural productivity, and environmental cleanup expenses. This phenomenon exemplifies market failure, where the true costs of production are not reflected in market prices, leading to overexploitation of natural resources.

Economists have developed various indices, such as the Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI), which consider factors like environmental health, social well-being, and resource depletion—elements omitted in Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The GPI offers a more holistic view of economic progress by accounting for the sustainability of growth. An essential environmental concept is the “tragedy of the commons,” a scenario where shared resources are overused and depleted because individuals prioritize personal gain over collective welfare. This underscores the importance of regulatory frameworks and sustainable management practices.

The establishment of national parks represents a significant achievement in conservation efforts. The world’s first national park is Yellowstone, created in 1872, serving as a model for protecting biodiversity and natural landscapes. In modern environmental law, acts like the Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act are designed to regulate pollution, enhance air and water quality, and protect public health. The Clean Air Act sets emission standards for pollutants, while the Clean Water Act aims to reduce pollution in water bodies. Green taxes are economic instruments that incentivize pollution reduction by taxing environmentally damaging activities, aligning economic incentives with ecological sustainability.

The U.S. government continues to subsidize the oil and gas industry, fostering reliance on fossil fuels despite environmental concerns. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) plays a vital role by enforcing environmental laws, regulating pollutants, and safeguarding human health and ecosystems. Expanding farmland for agriculture using current industrial techniques is unsustainable due to soil degradation, water overuse, and loss of biodiversity. Instead, sustainable farming practices—such as crop rotation and soil conservation—are necessary.

Malnutrition manifests primarily as undernutrition and overnutrition. Undernutrition occurs when nutrient intake is insufficient, leading to stunted growth and weakened immunity. Overnutrition, often associated with excessive calorie intake, contributes to obesity and related health issues. Leaching refers to the process by which water dissolves soluble substances, such as nutrients or pollutants, and transports them through the soil profile, often leading to groundwater contamination.

Soil horizons are distinct layers that develop over time. The five main horizons, in order from the surface downward, are: O horizon (organic matter and decomposed material), A horizon (topsoil, rich in minerals and organic material), E horizon ( eluviation or leaching layer), B horizon (subsoil with accumulated minerals and nutrients), and C horizon (weathered parent material). Strategies to conserve soil include crop rotation, cover cropping, reduced tillage, contour farming, afforestation, and organic farming techniques.

A weed is an undesirable plant that competes with cultivated crops for resources, while a pest is an organism that damages crops, structures, or other assets. Farmers are adopting innovative water-saving practices in irrigation, such as drip irrigation and precision watering systems, to reduce water waste. No-till farming offers benefits including increased soil carbon sequestration, reduced erosion, and lower fuel consumption.

Antibiotics are heavily used in Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) to promote growth and prevent disease in crowded conditions. However, this widespread use contributes to the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, posing a significant public health risk. Transgenic organisms are genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that have had specific genes inserted to enhance desirable traits, such as pest resistance or drought tolerance.

Sspecies diversity generally peaks near the equator because of favorable climate conditions, stable habitats, and high primary productivity. Many generalist species, such as rats, pigeons, or invasive plants, thrive due to human disturbance—often outcompeting native species and disrupting ecosystems. The extinction risk of undiscovered rainforest plants highlights the importance of conserving biodiversity, as they may possess medicinal or ecological value yet remain unknown.

The background extinction rate is the baseline frequency of species extinctions over geological time, typically estimated at approximately one species per million per year. Factors contributing to amphibian declines include habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, and disease—particularly chytridiomycosis. Forests help recharge aquifers through infiltration, maintaining groundwater supplies essential for drinking water and agriculture. Primary forests are undisturbed ecosystems with mature, complex structures, whereas secondary forests regrow after disturbance, often with simpler structures.

The paper forming our textbook originates from research and scientific discourse published at top academic institutions. The U.S. subsidizes private logging on public lands through tax incentives and land management programs, which can lead to overharvesting and habitat loss. Forest fragmentation affects animals by isolating populations, reducing genetic diversity, and increasing vulnerability to extinction. Global warming influences the spread of infectious diseases by expanding the habitats of vectors like mosquitoes, exposing new populations to diseases such as malaria or dengue.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), such as DDT, are chemicals resistant to environmental degradation, bioaccumulating and harming ecosystems. LD50 is a measure of toxicity indicating the dose required to kill 50% of a test population. Certain countries use DDT primarily for controlling vector-borne diseases despite environmental concerns. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets standards for human chemical exposure based on scientific risk assessments.

Toxicants can become concentrated in polar regions through a process called “global distillation,” where volatile chemicals evaporate in warmer regions and condense in colder areas, leading to higher concentrations at the poles. The Earth's structure comprises three main layers: the crust (solid outer layer), mantle (semi-fluid layer beneath the crust), and core (inner and outer core, composed mainly of iron and nickel). Protecting humans from natural geological disasters—such as earthquakes or volcanoes—includes early warning systems, land-use planning, and development of resilient infrastructure.

The Surface Mining and Reclamation Act strives to minimize environmental impacts of mining and restore land after mining operations cease. Mountaintop removal mining presents environmental risks like habitat destruction, water pollution, and deforestation. Strategies for environmental protection involve monitoring, regulations, and sustainable land management practices to reduce ecological damage and promote rehabilitation.

References

• Carson, R. (1962). Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin.
• Constanza, R., et al. (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387(6630), 253-260.
• Environmental Protection Agency. (2023). Principles of Environmental Law. https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations
• Kormondy, E. J. (1969). Concepts of Ecology. Prentice-Hall.
• Meadows, D. H., et al. (1972). The Limits to Growth. Universe Books.
• National Park Service. (2020). Yellowstone National Park History. https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/historyculture/index.htm
• Sala, O. E., et al. (2000). Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science, 287(5459), 1770-1774.
• United States Geological Survey. (2021). Earth Layers. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/EarthLayers.html
• World Health Organization. (2018). Vector-borne diseases. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases
• Zimmerman, L. (2000). Soil Conservation in Agriculture. Agricultural Sciences Journal.