In Light Of Problems Posed By The Concept Of Drive Premack

In Light Of Problems Posed By The Concept Of Drive Premack One Of Sk

In light of problems posed by the concept of drive, Premack, one of Skinner's followers, proposes that we consider reinforcement: A. In terms of the length of extinction. B. In terms of the power of discriminative stimuli. C. As ratios between positive and negative reinforcement. D. As the momentary probability of a response. Responses that are intermittently rather than continuously reinforced are: A. Less likely to generalize. B. Less subject to negative reinforcement. C. More difficult to extinguish. D. All of the above. The text indicates how Skinner discussed emotions as the effects of: A. Reinforcement schedules. B. Shaping. C. Discriminative stimuli. D. Behavior chains. Skinner's attitude toward the theory of natural selection seemed basically: A. Positive. B. Negative. C. Mixed. D. Unclear Skinner argued that internal events such as thoughts: A. Have no place in behaviorism. B. Should only be studied if they can be observed and measured. C. Are less important than Pavlov said they are. D. Are less important than Watson said they are. According to the text, the most basic difference between Skinner and the developmentalists has to do with: A. The issue of stages. B. The source of developmental change-inner or outer. C. The continuity-discontinuity issue. D. The importance of emotions in the developmental process. An example of a discriminative stimulus is a boy who: A. Is startled by the sight of a dog. B. Works only when immediately rewarded. C. Cries to get attention. D. Works hard only when the teacher says, "This paper will be graded." The text considers research on televised aggression as: A. Weak. B. Fairly Weak. C. Fairly conclusive. D. Supporting some theorists but not others. In Bandura's theory, direct reinforcements primarily affect: A. General classes of behavior rather than specific behavior. B. Aggressive behavior rather than other kinds of behavior. C. Altruistic behavior rather than other kinds of behavior. D. Performances rather than the acquisition of responses. Over the years, Bandura has come to view Piaget's theory as: A. Similar to his own. B. Still wrong in major respects. C. Correct about external standards. D. Correct about stages. Studies on pro-social behavior suggest that: A. Preaching can have strong short-term effects but can backfire. B. Modeling a behavior for children always has stronger effects than issuing orders. C. Practicing and preaching have about the same effects. D. Preaching is always more effective than modeling a behavior. A 3-year old child enthusiastically imitates the behavior of a slightly older child. This imitation most clearly supports the theory of: A. Piaget. B. Bandura. C. Skinner. D. Watson. Five-year olds seem to talk to themselves aloud more often as their work becomes increasingly difficult. This finding supports: A. Piaget. B. Vygotsky. C. Both Piaget and Vygotsky. D. Neither Piaget nor Vygotsky. Luria found that when young children try to give themselves verbal commands: A. They can immediately regulate their behavior. B. They respond to the meaning of their words rather than their words' signaling function. C. They respond primarily to familiar words. D. They behave as if all commands initiate behavior. One of Vygotsky's laws was that: A. Behavior begins as action and then become increasingly verbal and logical. B. The dialectic of history manifests itself in the cognitive conflicts between individuals. C. Children first learn the social forms of behavior, then apply it to themselves. D. Logic is simply interiorized action. The text most strongly criticizes Vygotsky's educational approach for: A. Ignoring Piaget. B. Lack of clarity. C. Overemphasizing social learning. D. Fostering dependence. The text suggests Vygotsky described the interactions between inner and outer forces behind development: A. In a clear and precise way. B. In an imbalanced way. C. In a clearer manner with respect to language than school instruction. D. In a clearer manner for older than younger children. Freud would suggest that a young man's anxiety over competition probably reflects earlier problems at: A. The first stage. B. The second stage. C. The third stage. D. The fourth stage. What most puzzled Freud about the girl's Oedipus Complex was: A. Why girls experience penis envy. B. Why girls aren't as open as boys about sexual matters. C. Why girls feel a need to resolve the crisis. D. Why girls develop a masculinity complex. In general, the strongest fixation seems to be: A. Excessive gratification. B. Excessive frustration. C. Inconsistent care. D. Unconscious fantasies.

Paper For Above instruction

The primary focus of this discussion revolves around several foundational theories and concepts in psychology, particularly behaviorism, developmental psychology, social learning, and psychoanalytic theory. The interrelation of these theories provides a comprehensive understanding of human behavior, development, and emotional processes, emphasizing how different perspectives interpret the influence of reinforcement, cognition, social interaction, and unconscious motivations.

Beginning with Skinner's behaviorist perspective, the role of reinforcement is key to understanding learning and behavior modification. Premack’s contribution, in light of the drive-reduction theory's limitations, suggests a shift toward viewing reinforcement as a functional ratio, specifically, the likelihood of a response at a given moment (Premack, 1965). This approach illustrates that responses reinforced intermittently tend to be more resistant to extinction and less susceptible to negative reinforcement, highlighting the importance of reinforcement schedules. These schedules influence behavior persistence, indicating that intermittently reinforced behaviors are harder to extinguish than those reinforced continuously (Kazdin, 2017).

Skinner posited that emotions are byproducts of reinforcement schedules, shaping behavioral responses over time (Skinner, 1953). This view minimizes the importance of internal emotional states, focusing instead on observable behaviors and external stimuli. Regarding natural selection, Skinner adopted a generally positive attitude, emphasizing that behavioral patterns could be understood through environmental contingencies, aligning with evolutionary principles (Skinner, 1953).

Internal events such as thoughts, according to Skinner, are not central to behaviorist explanations unless they can be observed or measured directly. This stance reflects strict behaviorism's skepticism toward unobservable phenomena, contrasting with cognitive perspectives that assign them a significant role (Baer & Morton, 2016). The developmental psychologists, notably Piaget and Skinner, differ primarily on the issue of stages versus continuous development, with Piaget emphasizing discrete stages and Skinner advocating a more continuous view driven by reinforcement histories (Piaget, 1952; Skinner, 1953).

In terms of discriminative stimuli—cues that signal the availability of reinforcement—examples include a boy who works hard only when the teacher indicates that the paper will be graded, demonstrating that external cues significantly influence responses (Reynolds & Wilson, 2018). Research on televised aggression remains somewhat inconclusive but suggests a cautious interpretation of the evidence, with some studies indicating potential effects on aggressive behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2002).

Bandura’s social learning theory supplements behaviorism by emphasizing observational learning. Direct reinforcement influences general behavior patterns more than specific responses, shaping broad tendencies such as aggression or altruism (Bandura, 1977). Over time, Bandura integrated cognitive processes into his model, positioning modeling and reinforcement as interacting factors that influence not only behavior performances but also learning and future responses.

Comparing Piaget and Bandura reveals contrasting perspectives: Piaget describes development as progressing through stages of increasing cognitive complexity, while Bandura emphasizes the role of modeling, imitation, and social influences, viewing development as a more continuous process driven by social interactions (Piaget, 1952; Bandura, 1977). Studies on prosocial behavior indicate that both modeling and preachment can promote helping behaviors, but modeling tends to have a more consistent long-term effect, although preaching can sometimes produce short-term compliance (Hamlin, Fong, & Warneken, 2011).

The imitation of an older child's behavior by a young child exemplifies Bandura’s theory of observational learning, emphasizing the importance of modeling. Similarly, the tendency of children to talk aloud when faced with difficult tasks supports the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, with Vygotsky specifically highlighting self-directed speech as a tool for cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1978). Luria's research indicates that children respond more to the meaning of words in giving verbal commands, emphasizing the cognitive and linguistic advances necessary for self-regulation.

Vygotsky's concept of the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD) proposes that learners have potential capabilities beyond their current performance, which can be unlocked through social interaction and guidance. This concept is more dynamic than traditional achievement testing, which measures only current capabilities, often failing to capture potential growth (Vygotsky, 1978). The critiques from Rousseauist perspectives argue that Vygotsky’s approach might overemphasize social environment at the expense of innate developmental processes (Hedegaard, 2012).

Freud's psychoanalytic theory situates the Oedipal complex as a pivotal developmental crisis in the phallic stage, where boys experience unconscious sexual desires for their mothers and jealousy toward their fathers. The resolution involves identification with the same-sex parent and internalization of the superego, leading to the development of a mature sexual identity. Freud believed similar dynamics occurred in girls, entailing penis envy and a different process of resolution, which impacts their subsequent psychosexual development (Freud, 1905).

Regarding fixation, Freud asserts that excessive gratification or frustration during stages can cause lifelong issues. For example, fixation at the oral stage results from unresolved conflicts that can manifest as dependency or oral habits later in life (Freud, 1905). In summary, Freud’s theories highlight the importance of early childhood experiences and internal conflicts in shaping personality and behavior, although they remain contentious due to their untestable aspects and cultural biases.

In conclusion, these diverse perspectives—from Skinner’s reinforcement and observational learning to Piaget’s cognitive stages, Vygotsky’s social development, and Freud’s psychoanalytic insights—collectively enrich our understanding of human development. While each offers unique explanations, they are also subject to critiques that deepen the ongoing debates in psychology about nature versus nurture, internal versus external influences, and the mechanisms of development and behavior change.

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