In The Eighth Unit, You Learned About The Major Civilization

In the eighth unit, you learned about the major civilizations of the A

In the eighth unit, you learned about the major civilizations of the Americas, including the Mayan, Aztec, and Inca, and how European expansion and colonization led to their downfall. You compared civilizations in the Americas with other ancient civilizations in Africa and the Middle East. You are now equipped to apply your knowledge by comparing and contrasting civilizations around the world from antiquity through the fifteenth century CE in your final paper. Consider using the Unit 8 Guide to check that you completed all the assigned activities and remember to take a look at your instructor's feedback on your Unit 7 & 8 assignments and Unit 8 discussion. Congratulations on completing this course on world civilizations!

Paper For Above instruction

The eighth unit of your course provided an insightful overview of the major civilizations that developed across the Americas—namely the Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations—and explored the profound impacts of European exploration, conquest, and colonization on these societies. By examining these civilizations' origins, cultural developments, political structures, and eventual downfall, you gained a comprehensive understanding of their enduring legacies and vulnerabilities. Additionally, the course encouraged you to compare these American civilizations with other ancient civilizations from Africa and the Middle East, fostering a broader understanding of world history from antiquity through the fifteenth century CE.

The Mayan civilization, which reached its peak between 250 and 900 CE, was distinguished by its elaborate monumental architecture, sophisticated hieroglyphic writing system, and complex calendar. The Mayans established city-states that were often politically autonomous yet culturally connected through shared religious practices and kinship networks. Religion played a central role in Maya society, with rulers considered divine intermediaries and human sacrifice integral to their spiritual worldview. Their achievements in astronomy and mathematics exemplify their advanced intellectual capacity. Despite periods of decline, the Mayan civilization persisted until Spanish colonization, which ultimately dismantled their societal structures.

The Aztec Empire, emerging around the thirteenth century CE from nomadic origins in northern Mexico, built a powerful and expansive empire centered on the city of Tenochtitlán. The Aztec society was highly organized with a strict social hierarchy, including emperor, nobles, warriors, and commoners. The Aztecs are perhaps most famous for their militaristic expansion and religious practices, including human sacrifice intended to appease the gods and ensure cosmic stability. Their political dominance was maintained through a tributary system and a formidable military. The arrival of Hernán Cortés and Spanish conquistadors in the early 16th century led to the fall of the Aztec Empire in 1521, a consequence of military conquest, disease, and alliances with rival groups.

The Inca civilization, beginning in the 12th century CE, flourished in the Andean highlands of South America, controlling a vast territory from Peru to Chile. The Incas developed an intricate administrative system supported by an extensive network of roads and relay stations that facilitated communication and governance across diverse terrains. Their economy was based on agriculture, notably the cultivation of potatoes and maize, with impressive terracing and irrigation techniques. The Incas practiced a centralized religion that emphasized ancestor worship and a divine ruler, the Sapa Inca. Internal rebellions and European diseases significantly weakened the empire, culminating in the conquest by Francisco Pizarro in 1533.

This comprehensive examination underscores how each of these civilizations developed unique yet interconnected social, religious, and political systems. Their decline was largely driven by external forces—primarily European invasions, diseases, and technological disparities—yet their cultural legacies endure through archaeological remains, tradition, and influence. Comparing these American civilizations offers valuable insights into the diversity of human societal development and highlights the profound effects colonialism had on indigenous peoples. Furthermore, contrasting these with African and Middle Eastern civilizations illuminates patterns of expansion, cultural exchange, and decline that defined the broader scope of world history from ancient periods to the late medieval era.

Understanding these civilizations within their historical contexts enables a richer appreciation of their achievements and vulnerabilities. It also informs contemporary discussions about cultural resilience, historical memory, and the legacy of colonialism. This knowledge is essential for constructing a nuanced narrative of global history that transcends geographic and cultural boundaries, fostering a more interconnected understanding of humanity's diverse civilization trajectories across time.

References

• Cartwright, M. (2014). Inca Civilization. Ancient History Encyclopedia. https://www.ancient.eu/Inca_Civilization/
• Mark, J. J. (2012). Maya Civilization. Ancient History Encyclopedia. https://www.ancient.eu/Maya_Civilization/
• Wallech, S., Daryaee, T., Hendricks, C., Negus, A. L., Wan, P. P., & Bakken, G. M. (2013). World history volume I: A concise thematic analysis (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
• Cartwright, M. (2014). The Incas. Ancient History Encyclopedia. https://www.ancient.eu/Inca/
• History.com Editors. (2019). Aztec Empire. History.com. https://www.history.com/topics/aztecs
• Wallech, S., Daryaee, T., Hendricks, C., Negus, A. L., Wan, P. P., & Bakken, G. M. (2013). World history volume I: A concise thematic analysis (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
• Sharer, R. J., & Traxler, L. P. (2006). The Ancient Maya. Stanford University Press.
• Davies, N. (2010). Empires of Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789–1923. Yale University Press.
• Restall, M., & Lane, M. (2015). The Conquistadors: A New History. Basic Books.
• Hemming, J. (2014). The Conquest of the Incas. Bedford/St. Martin's Press.