Intermediate Applied Statistics For Education Questions 1–4

Intermediate Applied Statistics For Educationquestions 1 4 Ask You Con

Intermediate Applied Statistics for Education Questions 1-4 ask you conceptual or interpretive questions about regression. Please include all relevant computer output, calculations, etc. in an appendix attached. Note: if anything in the appendix is central to the responses to the questions above, include this in the main body of the assignment.

Question 1: SLU students were polled and asked both their GPA and the number of hours per week they watch TV. Among them were four students named Karen, Tara, Katyn, and Nicole. Below is a scatterplot of GPA against the number of hours watched. Fill in the following table with “small” or “large” in each box: Residual, Leverage, Influence for Karen, Tara, Katyn, Nicole. If you ran the regression of GPA on hours watched omitting whichever of the 4 points above you deemed most influential, what do you expect would happen to the slope coefficient? Should you remove this point from the analysis? Why or why not? Explain what factors you would consider in determining whether you should.

Question 2: Katyn runs a regression of Y on X and obtains an R² value of exactly 0.00. Katyn says, “I get it! That means there is no relationship between Y and X in this sample!” Nicole, sitting in the next office, asks Katyn to generate a scatterplot of Y against X. Once they saw the scatterplot, it was clear that Katyn’s claim was wrong. (a) Explain why Katyn’s claim was incorrect. (b) What type of bias did the model suffer from? Choose one: a. Simultaneous causality bias b. Model misspecification bias c. Sample selection bias d. Bias due to measurement error in X e. Both (a) and (d).

Assuming the model reflects the observed relationship, write the statistical model in equation form.

Question 3: The following series of models analyze the relationship between “happiness” and predictors, including person income, PhD completion (PhD=1, no PhD=0), and SLU graduation (SLU=1, not SLU=0). Results from five models are provided:

• Model 1: PhD 0.86, SLU 5.47, Income 0.44, Constant 3.32*, R² 0.16
• Model 2: PhD 6.86, SLU 3.16, Income 2.07**, Constant 1.88, R² (unspecified)
• Model 3: PhD 6.86, SLU 3.15, Income -17.09, Constant -22.01, R² (unspecified)
• Model 4: PhD 6.86, SLU 3.15, Income 0.44, Constant 172.06, R² 0.20
• Model 5: an equation involving income and its powers (not fully specified) with R² (unspecified)

(a) Interpret the coefficients related to intercept, PhD, SLU Graduate, Income (model 1 and 2), and ln(Income) (model 5). (b) Which model do you prefer and why? Examine attributes like R², constants, and variable significance. (c) Write the model equation for Model 5. (d) Test the null hypothesis that the true coefficient on PhD in Model 2 equals 7. How does this correspond to the real-world meaning? (e) Calculate the t-statistic for this hypothesis and interpret the result. (f) Construct a 95% confidence interval for the coefficient of SLU Graduate in Model 2, and interpret its meaning. (g) Assess if omitting Income from Model 2 likely biased the estimate for SLU Graduate. Provide reasoning. (h) Consider a model with an interaction between PhD and SLU; given the coefficients and p-values, interpret how much happier a PhD recipient with SLU graduation is compared to a BA without SLU. Can we reject the hypothesis that non-SLU PhD and BA recipients have the same happiness? (i) How much happier are SLU PhD recipients than non-SLU PhD recipients with the same income? How would you formally test this?

Question 4: Nicole and Karen analyzed school enrollment across California counties using two models. Nicole and Karen’s single-regressor model estimated no variation (p=0.8302, R²=0.0001). Katyn and Tara’s model included indicator variables for each county (excluding Alameda), with R²=0.3124 and p

Paper For Above instruction

The analysis of regression relationships in educational and social data provides valuable insights into how variables such as GPA, television watching habits, happiness, and school enrollment interrelate. The interpretive process involves understanding residuals, leverage, influence, model specification, and the implications of omitted variables. This paper explores these aspects through a set of conceptual questions and analysis of regression outputs.

Residuals, Leverage, and Influence in Regression Analysis

In regression diagnostics, residuals measure the deviation of observed data from the fitted model predictions. A "small" residual indicates the observed value closely aligns with the model, while a "large" residual suggests a potential outlier or model misfit. Leverage assesses how far an independent variable’s value deviates from its mean; high leverage points can disproportionately influence the regression model. Influence combines both residual magnitude and leverage to quantify an observation’s overall impact on the estimated regression coefficients.

Regarding the four students—Karen, Tara, Katyn, and Nicole—visual assessment via scatterplots allows identification of these diagnostics. If, for example, Karen's data point exhibits large residuals and leverage, it could be considered influential. Omitting such a point may significantly alter the slope coefficient because influential data points can disproportionately sway the regression estimates. Whether to remove a point depends on factors such as its cause (measurement error, genuine observation), its influence on the model's validity, and the goal of the analysis—whether to generalize or understand specific data patterns.

Misinterpretation of R-Squared and Model Specification

Katyn’s assertion that R²=0.00 implies no relationship between variables is a common misconception. R² indicates the proportion of variability in the dependent variable explained by independent variables. An R² of zero suggests that the model does not explain any variability, but this does not mean there is no relationship—potential issues such as poor variable scaling, measurement error, or model misspecification might obscure the true relationship. The observed scatterplot might reveal a clear pattern, highlighting measurement or specification issues rather than a true absence of association.

The bias present in Katyn’s model is likely a form of model misspecification or measurement error bias, where the model fails to correctly specify the functional form or includes inaccurate variables. The suitable model to reflect the observed relationship in a simple case would be:

Y = β₀ + β₁X + ε

Analyzing Happiness and Demographic Predictors

The regression analyses examining happiness include various models with predictors like income, PhD status, and SLU graduation. Interpreting coefficients systematically enhances understanding of the substantive effects.

• Intercept in Model 1: The expected happiness level when all predictors are zero is 3.32. Although the intercept's practical interpretation depends on whether zero income or no degree are meaningful in context, here it represents baseline happiness.
• PhD degree (Model 1): A coefficient of 0.86 indicates that holding others constant, individuals with a PhD report slightly higher happiness than those without, though the significance level suggests cautious interpretation.
• SLU Graduate (Model 1): A 5.47 coefficient suggests SLU graduates are substantially happier than non-graduates, controlling for other factors.
• Income (Model 2): A 2.07 coefficient indicates that higher income is associated with increased happiness, holding other variables constant.
• Income (Model 3): The negative coefficient (-17.09) possibly reflects issues like multicollinearity or functional form misspecification shifting interpretation.
• Ln(Income) (Model 5): A 12.99 coefficient suggests a positive association between the natural logarithm of income and happiness, aligning with economic theories that model diminishing returns to income.

Choosing the best model involves balancing fit (R²), simplicity, and significance of variables. Model 4, with the highest adjusted R-squared (0.20), appears preferable, as it explains more variance with fewer complexities than models involving polynomial income terms.

Hypothesis Testing and Confidence Intervals

Testing the null hypothesis that the coefficient on PhD equals 7.0 in Model 2 involves calculating a t-statistic:

t = (estimate - null value) / standard error

Given a coefficient estimate (say, 6.86) with its standard error, the t-statistic is:

t = (6.86 - 7.0) / SE

If the calculated t-value exceeds critical values at a 5% significance level, we reject the null, concluding the coefficient differs from 7.0. The 95% confidence interval further provides a range within which the true coefficient likely falls, offering insight into the plausibility of specific hypothesis values.

Interaction Effects and Group Differences

In the interaction model, the coefficient on the interaction term indicates how the combination of being a PhD holder and SLU graduate influences happiness beyond their individual effects. For example, an estimated coefficient of 12.50 suggests that for a SLU graduate with a PhD, happiness increases substantially relative to the baseline group.

Testing whether non-SLU PhD and BA recipients have the same happiness involves examining the combined effect and conducting a hypothesis test (null hypothesis: difference equals zero). The null can be rejected if the interaction coefficient and its p-value indicate statistical significance. Similarly, the difference in happiness between SLU and non-SLU PhD recipients with the same income can be calculated using the estimated coefficients, and tests can be performed to ascertain if this difference is statistically significant.

School Enrollment Analysis: County-Level Variation

Nicole and Karen’s univariate regression found no significant variation across California counties, with an F-test p-value of 0.8302 and an R² of virtually zero, implying that county does not explain differences in enrollment. Conversely, Katyn and Tara’s model, which includes indicator variables for each county (excluding one as baseline), yields a significant F-test (p

Between these analyses, Katyn and Tara’s model provides a better understanding of county-level differences because it captures the unique effect of each county, rather than assuming a uniform or null effect. They omitted Alameda County’s indicator variable because it served as the baseline category; including it would lead to perfect multicollinearity, and it is standard practice to exclude one category in dummy variable regression. Based on their output, the predicted enrollment in Butte County (assuming county2) would be the baseline (intercept) value adjusted by their coefficients, but since the coefficient is not statistically significant, the predicted enrollment would be close to the intercept value, approximately 2710 students, acknowledging the wide confidence interval and standard error.

Conclusion

Through this analysis, the importance of understanding diagnostic measures, proper model specification, interpretation of coefficients, and the appropriate selection of models become evident. Recognizing the limitations and strengths of different approaches enables researchers to draw meaningful and accurate conclusions about the data, especially in educational contexts where policy decisions can be influenced by these findings.

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