Ling 3p71 X Syntax Handout 198 Xˈ Syntax81 Xˈ S

Ling 3p71 X Syntax Handout 198 Xˈ Syntax81 Xˈ S

Analyze the syntactic structures and rules discussed in the lecture, including X’-syntax, the transformation from TG to GB, NP to DP hypotheses, the categorization of complements, adjuncts, and specifiers, and the hierarchical tree structures for phrase constituents. Include the evidence supporting D as a phrasal element, the structure of VP and IP, and the role of the CP in embedded clauses. Discuss the verb subcategorization patterns with examples, and draw tree diagrams illustrating these patterns, paying attention to the placement of functional nodes such as Spec, Adjunct, and Complement. Use the X-bar template to create accurate syntactic trees for various phrases, demonstrating your understanding of hierarchical structure and phrase configuration.

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The syntax of natural language sentences is a highly intricate and structured domain within linguistics that has evolved through various theoretical frameworks. In this discourse, we delve into the core concepts of X’-syntax, the movement from Transformational Grammar (TG) to Government and Binding (GB) theory, as well as the hierarchical constituents of phrases, including the status of determiners, complements, adjuncts, and specifiers. An integral part of this analysis involves understanding the internal structure of noun phrases (NP), the shift to determiner phrase (DP) hypotheses, and the evidence underpinning this transition, notably the attachment patterns of genitive ’s and the positional relations of D within noun phrases.

The X’-syntax framework emphasizes the modular nature of phrases composed of a head (X), which can be a noun, verb, adjective, or preposition, accompanied by various functional elements. The fundamental rules for NPs, for instance, include the addition of specifiers (such as determiners), adjuncts (modifiers), and complements (completions) attached respectively as sister to N’, sister to X’, or within the phrase structure. For example, the structure of an NP may be realized as Det N’ or with adjuncts, and expanded further to include complements, demonstrating the layered nature of phrase construction.

Empirical evidence for the structure of DPs reveals that determiners are outside the traditional NP structure, leading to the DP hypothesis. The attachment of genitive ’s variants—whether to entire phrases or individual heads—serves as a key illustration. For instance, ’s can attach to complex phrases like “the man standing over there” rather than solely to the noun, suggesting that D is itself a phrasal node that dominates the NP and functions as the grammatical head of the DP. The realization of the DP as the maximal projection aligns with the observations that ’s is attached at the phrase level, not within the NP, resolving the issue of the non-head status of D.

Moving to the clause level, the structure of VP and its internal components is scrutinized. The VP is typically structured as V’ followed by its complements, such as NP objects, PP adjuncts, and even embedded clauses. The clause’s hierarchical setup incorporates the IP (Inflectional Phrase) as the maximal projection, hosting tense and agreement features, and combining with higher functional elements like the CP (Complementizer Phrase) responsible for embedding and interrogative operations. For example, the presence of a CP, with elements like “that,” “if,” or wh-words, encapsulates subordinate clauses, which occupy specific syntactic positions as demonstrated by the tree diagrams.

The motivation behind the V’ structure reflects the need to account for various verb phrase structures, including ditransitive and complex predicates. The introduction of V’ allows for the recursive formation of VPs, where adjuncts and complements are systematically arranged under hierarchical nodes. Sentences like “John will study linguistics at Harvard” exemplify how the VP structure accommodates adjuncts such as “at Harvard” and complement objects, integrating tense and modal information through the I node in the IP layer.

Moreover, the subcategorization patterns of verbs reveal critical insights into their syntactic behavior. Certain verbs, like believe and want, subcategorize for IP complements, as they can be followed by that-clauses, while persuade prefers NP + CP structures, with the NP being the experiencer or subject of persuasion. These distinctions are evidenced through paraphrasing tests involving the insertion of 'that'-clauses, the pseudo-cleft test, and the distribution of the genitive ’s attachment. For instance, sentences with believe and want demonstrate that their complements are IPs, whereas persuade’s complements are NPs with embedded CPs, illustrating different subcategorization frames.

In diagrammatic form, the tree structures depict the hierarchical nature of phrase constituents, with clear demarcations of Spec, Adjunct, and Complement positions. For example, a typical NP tree comprises a specifier (such as a determiner), a N’ node, and optionally adjuncts and complements. Similarly, VP trees show a V’ dominating the verb and its arguments, with adjuncts attached to V’ or VP, depending on the syntactic status. These trees evidence the systematic ordering and hierarchical configuration that underpin syntactic analysis.

In conclusion, the syntactic structures discussed—including the hierarchical phrase structures, the role of the DP hypothesis, and the subcategorization patterns—provide a comprehensive understanding of sentence formation in English. The use of X’-syntax allows linguists to capture the recursive and layered nature of language, essential for both theoretical explorations and practical diagrammatic representations. Mastery of these concepts equips students and researchers with the tools to analyze complex sentences, understand the internal mechanisms of phrase formation, and appreciate the universality of syntactic principles across languages.

References

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• Abney, S. (1987). The English Noun Phrase in its Sentential Aspect. PhD Thesis, MIT.
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