Math 8 Homework 5 Spring 2018 Due Monday April 16

Math 8 Homework 5 Spring 2018due Monday April 16th at the start of

Suppose A ⊆ C, and B and C are disjoint. Prove that if x ∈ A then x 6∈ B.

Prove each of the following statements either directly or by contrapositive, clearly indicating your method. Assume a, b, and c are integers, and construct complete, rigorous proofs:

1. If a² does not divide b², then a does not divide b.
2. If a and b are odd, then a² + 3b² + ab is odd.
3. If b³ − 1 is odd, then b is even.
4. If a² divides b and b³ divides c, then a⁶ divides c.

Prove the following statements about sets A, B, and C, using direct and/or contrapositive methods as appropriate:

5. Show that A ∩ (B \ C) = (A ∩ B) \ (A ∩ C).
6. Prove that (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).

Question 6

(a) Explain why the statement “for any sets A and B, A \ (A \ B) = B” is false by providing explicit examples where the equality fails.

(b) Determine whether the statements A \ (A \ B) ⊆ B or B ⊆ A \ (A \ B) hold for all sets A and B, and justify your answer.

(c) Identify a simple set expression in terms of A and B that could replace B on the right side of the equation to make it universally true, and prove this assertion.

Paper For Above instruction

The given mathematical homework encompasses an exploration of set theory proofs, divisibility properties in integers, and logical deductions, demanding rigorous reasoning and clear methodological choices such as direct or contrapositive proofs.

Introduction

Mathematics often necessitates precise proofs to validate statements about sets and integers. In particular, set theory and number theory are foundational in understanding the structure of mathematical objects and their relationships. This paper addresses a sequence of proofs related to set containment, divisibility, and logical implications, emphasizing clarity, completeness, and correctness. It also includes an exploration of set equalities, counterexamples, and set operations, further reinforcing foundational concepts.

Part 1: Set Containment and Disjointness

To prove that if A ⊆ C and B and C are disjoint, then any element x ∈ A cannot be in B, we formulate a proof based on the definitions of subset and disjoint sets. Since B and C are disjoint, their intersection is empty: B ∩ C = ∅. Moreover, assuming A ⊆ C means every element of A belongs to C. By contradiction, suppose x ∈ A ∩ B. Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Since x ∈ A, it follows that x ∈ C due to the subset relation. But x ∈ B and B ∩ C = ∅ implies x ∉ C, which contradicts x ∈ C. Therefore, our assumption is false, and x ∉ B. This establishes that if A ⊆ C and B, C are disjoint, then elements of A cannot be in B.

Part 2: Number Theory Proofs

(a) Divisibility of squares

To decide whether to prove directly or via contrapositive for Proposition 1, consider: "If a² does not divide b², then a does not divide b."

Proving directly involves assuming a² does not divide b² and deducing a does not divide b. Alternatively, proving the contrapositive asserts: "If a divides b, then a² divides b²." Since this statement is often easier, we opt for a direct proof of the contrapositive.

Proof: Suppose that a divides b; that is, b = a·k for some integer k. Then, b² = (a·k)² = a²·k². Therefore, a² divides b². This confirms the contrapositive, and hence the original statement is true.

(b) Odd integers and sum of squares

We analyze whether if a and b are odd, then a² + 3b² + ab is odd.

Since a and b are odd, we express them as a = 2m + 1 and b = 2n + 1. Calculate each term:

• a² = (2m + 1)² = 4m² + 4m + 1 = 2(2m² + 2m) + 1, which is odd.
• 3b² = 3(2n + 1)² = 3(4n² + 4n + 1) = 12n² + 12n + 3 = 2(6n² + 6n) + 3, which is odd.
• ab = (2m + 1)(2n + 1) = 4mn + 2m + 2n + 1 = 2(2mn + m + n) + 1, which is odd.

Adding three odd numbers yields an odd sum because odd + odd + odd = odd. Thus, the sum a² + 3b² + ab is odd, confirming the statement.

(c) Parity of b

We need to prove: If b³ − 1 is odd, then b is even.

Suppose b is odd. Then b = 2k + 1, and b³ = (2k + 1)³ = 8k³ + 12k² + 6k + 1, which simplifies to an odd number. Therefore, b³ − 1 = odd − 1 = even, which contradicts the assumption that b³ − 1 is odd. Conversely, if b is even, b = 2k, then b³ − 1 = (2k)³ − 1 = 8k³ − 1, which is odd. Therefore, the only possibility for b³ − 1 to be odd is that b is even, completing the proof.

(d) Divisibility implications involving powers

To prove: If a² divides b and b³ divides c, then a⁶ divides c.

Assuming a² | b, there exists integer m such that b = a²·m. If b³ | c, then c = n · b³ = n · (a²·m)³ = n · a⁶· m³. Therefore, c is divisible by a⁶, implying a⁶ | c. This completes the proof, demonstrating the multiplicative nature of divisibility in powers.

Part 3: Set Operations and Equalities

(a) Equality involving set intersections and set differences

We aim to prove that A ∩ (B \ C) = (A ∩ B) \ (A ∩ C).

Proof: Let x ∈ A ∩ (B \ C). By definition, x ∈ A and x ∈ B \ C. Since x ∈ B \ C, x ∈ B and x ∉ C. It follows that x ∈ A and x ∈ B, so x ∈ A ∩ B. Also, since x ∉ C, x ∉ A ∩ C. Therefore, x ∈ (A ∩ B) \ (A ∩ C).

Conversely, suppose x ∈ (A ∩ B) \ (A ∩ C). Then x ∈ A ∩ B and x ∉ A ∩ C. From x ∈ A ∩ B, x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Since x ∉ A ∩ C, x ∉ A or x ∉ C, but we already have x ∈ A, so it must be that x ∉ C. Consequently, x ∈ A and x ∈ B, and x ∉ C, hence x ∈ B \ C. Also, x ∈ A, so x ∈ A ∩ (B \ C). This completes the proof of equality.

(b) Equality involving set union and difference

We seek to prove (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).

Proof: Let x ∈ (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B). Then x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∉ A ∩ B. The latter means x ∉ A or x ∉ B. If x ∈ A, then since x ∉ A ∩ B, it must be that x ∉ B. So x ∈ A and x ∉ B, hence x ∈ A \ B. Conversely, if x ∈ B and x ∉ A, then x ∈ B and x ∉ A, so x ∈ B \ A. Combining these, x ∈ (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A). The reverse inclusion follows similarly, confirming the equality.

Part 4: Counterexamples and Set Relations

(a) Counterexample for the false statement

Choosing A and B such that A \ (A \ B) ≠ B demonstrates the statement's falsity.

Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}. Then, A \ B = {1}, so A \ (A \ B) = {1, 2, 3} \ {1} = {2, 3}. But B = {2, 3, 4}. Since {2, 3} ≠ {2, 3, 4}, the equality fails.

(b) Set inclusion relations

Does A \ (A \ B) always subset B? Yes, because A \ (A \ B) contains elements of A that are not outside B; thus, they are in B or originate from B, but actually, by the set difference, these elements are definitely in B, so A \ (A \ B) ⊆ B.

Does B always subset A \ (A \ B)? Not necessarily. For example, with A and B as above, B = {2, 3, 4}. B is not a subset of {2, 3} because 4 ∉ A \ (A \ B). Hence, B ⊈ A \ (A \ B) always.

(c) Simplifying B

To ensure the equality A \ (A \ B) = B always holds, B must be exactly the set of elements of A that are in B, which is B itself. Hence, substituting B with A ∩ B provides a general form. The set expression A \ (A \ (A ∩ B)) always equals A ∩ B, leading to the conclusion that B should be replaced with A ∩ B for the equality to hold universally.

Proving: For any sets A and B, A \ (A \ (A ∩ B)) = A ∩ B.

Proof: A \ (A \ (A ∩ B)) involves elements of A not outside A ∩ B. Since A \ (A \ (A ∩ B)) includes elements in A that are also in A ∩ B, it simplifies to A ∩ B, confirming the equality.

Conclusion

This comprehensive examination of set theory and divisibility proofs demonstrates the depth and rigor necessary for mathematical reasoning. Each proof relies on fundamental properties and logical structure, illustrating core principles in discrete mathematics. Counterexamples reinforce the importance of precise conditions, and the careful application of direct and contrapositive proofs enhances understanding of logical strategies. The exploration underscores the interconnectivity of set operations and number theoretical concepts essential for advanced mathematical mastery.

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