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Analyze the core themes of the provided texts, focusing on how they explore the concept of crime, the role of societal constraints, and the existentialist perspective on human freedom and responsibility. Summarize Raymond J. Michalowski’s discussion of criminology and its historical constraints, Marie Gottschalk’s examination of the American penal system and its societal impacts, and Jean-Paul Sartre’s philosophy on human existence, freedom, and responsibility. Discuss how each author approaches the question of human agency within societal and philosophical contexts, highlighting the implications for understanding crime, justice, and human behavior.

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Understanding the multifaceted nature of crime, justice, and human agency requires a comprehensive analysis of both societal structures and philosophical perspectives. The texts by Raymond J. Michalowski, Marie Gottschalk, and Jean-Paul Sartre offer distinct but interconnected insights into these themes. Michalowski’s work delves into the historical and structural constraints that have shaped criminology, highlighting how legalist, corporate, and professional limitations have curtailed comprehensive studies of crime. His critique emphasizes that traditional criminology has often been confined within legal and institutional bounds, leaving certain societal issues, such as lynching or systemic inequality, underexplored. This constraints-based perspective underscores the need to rethink how crime is defined and studied, advocating for broader consideration of social factors beyond mere legality.

Marie Gottschalk’s analysis shifts the focus to the societal consequences of the American penal system, or what she terms the “Carceral State.” Her work examines how incarceration impacts not just individuals but entire communities, especially marginalized groups. She discusses the economic, social, and political factors that have perpetuated mass incarceration, such as policies influenced by poverty, unemployment, race, and political economy. Gottschalk suggests that these societal issues are intricately linked to the inequality embedded within the justice system. Her critique questions whether financial constraints alone justify or exacerbate the issues within the penal system and explores potential reforms, including reducing incarceration through alternative social policies.

In contrast, Jean-Paul Sartre’s existentialist philosophy offers a profound perspective on human freedom and individual responsibility. His assertion that “existence precedes essence” establishes that humans are not predefined entities but are fundamentally free to create their own identities through actions. Sartre emphasizes that humans bear responsibility for their choices, which inevitably extend to others, given the interconnectedness of human existence. His concepts of anguish, forlornness, and despair highlight the emotional and moral weight of this responsibility, especially in a universe devoid of inherent divine meaning. Sartre’s philosophical stance insists that humans are condemned to be free, condemned to continuously forge their selves and moral values through acts of will, despite the inherent uncertainties and contingencies that life presents.

Each author presents a different vantage point on human agency: Michalowski from a structural, societal constraints perspective; Gottschalk through the lens of systemic and political influences on incarceration; and Sartre from an individual, philosophical stance rooted in radical freedom and responsibility. Together, these perspectives deepen our understanding of how societal institutions shape human behavior and how individual agency operates within or against these frameworks. Recognizing the constraints within criminology and the systemic issues in the justice system emphasizes the importance of addressing social inequalities. Simultaneously, Sartre’s existentialism underscores that, despite structural limitations, individuals continuously exercise moral and personal responsibility, shaping their own destinies through conscious choices.

References

• Michalowski, R. J. (2019). What is Crime? In K. E. Barkan (Ed.), Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies (pp. 45-67). Pearson.
• Gottschalk, M. (2015). Democracy and the Carceral State in America. Oxford University Press.
• Sartre, J.-P. (1946). Existentialism Is a Humanism. Washington Square Press.
• Garland, D. (2001). The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. University of Chicago Press.
• Wacquant, L. (2009). Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity. Duke University Press.
• Aquinas, T. (1947). Natural Law and Natural Rights. (Trans. Joseph P. Wellein). Catholic University of America Press.
• Nietzsche, F. (1887). The Gay Science. Vintage.
• Description of Descartes’ Philosophy. (Recent scholarly journal review on free will and chance.)
• Husserl, E. (1931). Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology. Routledge.
• Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Vintage.