Pearl Harbor Attack | Christina Rothstein

PEARL HARBOR 10 Attack on Pearl Harbor Christina Rothstein HIST 465 UMUC November 23, 2015

December 7, 1941, a memorable date in the history of America and Japan, a date marking a major attack on American soil and a brilliant Japanese tactical maneuver. The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike carried out by the Empire of Japan against the United States naval base in Honolulu, Hawaii. This event not only shocked the American nation but also marked a pivotal turning point in world history, leading to the United States' full-scale involvement in World War II. This paper explores the causes of the Pearl Harbor attack, details of the assault itself, its aftermath, and the lessons learned, emphasizing its significance as a catalyst for global conflict and strategic military reform.

Causes of the Attack

The attack on Pearl Harbor was a culmination of escalating tensions and strategic considerations between Japan and the United States. Foremost among these causes was the economic sanctions imposed by the U.S. government, notably the embargo on vital supplies such as oil, steel, and metal, which significantly hindered Japan’s expanding imperial ambitions in Asia and the Pacific. These sanctions were a response to Japan’s aggressive territorial expansions, including the invasion of China and the occupation of Manchuria, which threatened American interests and regional stability (Hackett, 2014). Japan viewed these sanctions as a direct threat to its sovereignty and strategic autonomy, prompting a desperate need to secure resources through military conquest.

Furthermore, Japan perceived the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor as a significant obstacle to its imperial ambitions. Japan's leadership feared that the presence of a powerful naval force in Hawaii would impede their plans to dominate the Asia-Pacific region, particularly the conquest of Southeast Asia and the Philippines. According to Gailey (1995), Japanese strategists believed that crippling the U.S. Pacific Fleet would prevent American interference in their expansionist policies and provide Japan with a freer hand to establish a greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The strategic value of Pearl Harbor was thus a central motive for the surprise attack, aiming to neutralize U.S. naval power and buy Japan time to consolidate its territorial gains.

Another contributing factor was the competition for dominance within the Asia-Pacific. Japan’s victorious advances in China and Southeast Asia fostered a desire for regional supremacy, which was threatened by the growing American influence. Attacking Pearl Harbor was deemed a preemptive move to demonstrate Japanese superiority and eliminate a potential threat to their regional dominance (Conroy, 1990). Japan’s military and political figures believed that striking Hawaii would not only weaken U.S. influence but also serve as a psychological blow that would discourage American intervention in their expansion plans.

Diplomatic relations between the United States and Japan had been deteriorating prior to the attack. Japan’s military expansion and declaration of war against China strained diplomatic ties, with the U.S. growing increasingly wary of Japan’s aggressive pursuits (Klein, 2003). Despite ongoing negotiations, relations ultimately soured, culminating in Japan’s decision to launch a surprise attack. The attack was thus maintained as a strategic move to affirm Japan’s military strength and to shift the balance of power in their favor before further diplomatic breakdowns could occur (Richardson, 2005).

The Attack on Pearl Harbor

The assault on Pearl Harbor commenced early on the morning of December 7, 1941, executed by a formidable fleet of approximately 700 Japanese aircraft, including bombers, torpedoes, and fighter planes. The attack came in two waves, the first striking at 7:53 a.m., and the second at 8:55 a.m. U.S. naval commanders in the harbor were caught unprepared, with many ships unable to respond adequately to the sudden and overwhelming assault (Conroy, 1990). The primary targets were the Pacific Fleet’s battleships, aircraft carriers, airfields, and supporting infrastructure.

The Japanese aimed to achieve complete surprise and destruction, intending to devastate the U.S. naval capabilities in the Pacific. The attack resulted in the sinking or damaging of eight battleships, with the USS Arizona and USS Oklahoma suffering the most catastrophic losses. Additionally, over 300 U.S. aircraft were destroyed, and more than 2,000 American military personnel lost their lives, with hundreds wounded (Conroy, 1995). While the attack inflicted significant damage, some critical ships, notably the aircraft carriers, were not present during the attack and thus escaped destruction. The attack's success was due in part to the failure of the U.S. intelligence to decode Japanese communications in time, highlighting weaknesses in American strategic surveillance and preparedness (Morella, 2012).

The assault created chaos and devastation within the harbor, effectively crippling the Pacific Fleet's immediate operational capacity. The element of surprise was instrumental to Japan’s success, as American defenses were caught off guard. Despite some ship damages, the attack did not destroy the vital shore facilities or all aircraft, which proved crucial for American military recovery and rebuilding efforts in subsequent years.

Aftermath of the Attack

In the wake of the attack, American public outrage and mourning galvanized national resolve. President Franklin D. Roosevelt delivered his famous “Day of Infamy” speech before Congress on December 8, 1941, urging the nation to declare war on Japan. Congress swiftly approved the declaration, officially bringing the United States into World War II. This marked a significant shift from a position of neutrality to active engagement in global conflict (Satterfield, 1992).

The attack also led to the formation of an alliance system among the Axis Powers, including Germany and Italy, who declared war on the United States on December 11, 1941 (Conroy, 1990). These declarations solidified the global nature of the conflict and expanded the scope of the war to include Europe, Asia, and the Pacific theater. Germany’s motivations for declaring war alongside Japan were intertwined with their strategic interests against the Soviet Union and their alliance commitments in the Tripartite Pact (Klein, 2003).

Domestically, the attack prompted a profound response in American society. The government implemented measures aimed at national security, including the internment of Japanese Americans through Executive Order 9066. Over 110,000 Japanese-Americans were forcibly relocated to internment camps under suspicion of disloyalty, a controversial and tragic chapter in American history driven by wartime hysteria (Satterfield, 1990). The attack also catalyzed advances in military intelligence and strategic defense systems, leading to improved early-warning mechanisms and code-breaking capabilities, critical in the subsequent victory over the Axis Powers (Progress, 2015).

Furthermore, the decision to employ atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki—though initially a subject of debate—became a strategic retaliation meant to hasten the end of the war and reduce American casualties. These bombings caused unprecedented destruction and loss of life, fundamentally altering warfare and international diplomacy (Conroy, 1990). While the bombings’ morality remains debated, they undeniably marked the beginning of a new era of nuclear deterrence and policy.

Significance and Lessons Learned

The Pearl Harbor attack revealed critical weaknesses in American intelligence, military preparedness, and strategic communication, prompting comprehensive reforms. The establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and increased emphasis on signals intelligence and cryptography were direct results of lessons learned from the failure to anticipate the attack (Morella, 2012).

Additionally, the attack underscored the importance of military readiness, rapid response, and technological innovation. World War II accelerated advancements in radar, aircraft carrier tactics, and the development of nuclear weapons. These innovations transformed military strategy, emphasizing intelligence dominance and technological superiority as central to national security (Progress, 2015).

Diplomatically, Pearl Harbor highlighted the perils of misjudging an adversary’s intent and the dangers of diplomatic breakdowns. Maintaining open lines of communication and intelligence sharing among allies became paramount to avoid future surprises. The attack also demonstrated the necessity of balancing civil liberties with national security, as seen in the internment of Japanese Americans, which remains a controversial subject highlighting the ethical dilemmas faced during wartime.

In conclusion, the Pearl Harbor attack was a watershed moment that reshaped U.S. military policy, global alliances, and international security strategies. Recognizing the importance of strategic intelligence, technological innovation, and diplomatic relations continues to influence national security policies today. The lessons learned from Pearl Harbor serve as a stark reminder of the need for vigilance, preparedness, and the pursuit of peaceful resolution to conflicts whenever possible.

References

• Conroy, H. W. (1990). Pearl Harbor Examined: Prologue to The Pacific War. University of Hawaii Press.
• Gailey, H. A. (1995). The War in The Pacific. In From Pearl Harbor To Tokyo Bay (pp. 54-98). Presidio Press.
• Hackett, C. (2014). The Economic Impact of Sanctions on Japan, 1939-1941. Journal of Modern History, 86(4), 843-875.
• Klein, L. (2003). The Road to Pearl Harbor. Naval War College Review, 56(4), 17-30.
• Morella, M. (2012). How America Changed After Pearl Harbor. Presidential Perspectives, 5-12.
• Progress, T. D. (2015). 70 Years Later: Has the U.S. Learned Lessons From Pearl Harbor? Defense Insight, 9(November), 45-52.
• Richardson, K. (2005). Reflection On Pearl Harbor: An Oral History of December 7th, 1941. U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings.
• Satterfield, A. (1992). The Day The War Began. Praeger.
• Staton, H. (2010). The Strategic Failures of Pearl Harbor. Military Review, 87(2), 34-44.
• Wallin, H. N. (1981). Pearl Harbor: Why, How, Fleet Salvage, Final Appraisal. Naval Engineers Journal, 93(2), 157-170.