Physiology II Title Of Assignment Depression Name Of The Stu ✓ Solved

Physiology Ii Title Of Assignmentdepressionname Of The Studentacade

Depression may be termed as a serious, but common mood or mental disorder. People with depression experience more than just the normal sadness or upset as a result to changes in life, for example, disappointments at the work place, divorce, losing your job and the death of a loved one. Depression is a severe problem that affects both the individual and other close members, often making the individual affected lose hope on his or her future. In addition to experiencing symptoms of anxiety, individuals can also experience lack of interest in life, discouragement and being nervous, just to name a few.

For a person to be termed or categorized as depressed, he or she must have experienced the symptoms for at least two weeks. Anyone can become depressed. According to a survey done by the World Health Organization in 2012, the World Mental Health Survey, an average of 1 in 20 people from 17 different countries surveyed admitted to have had episodes of depression in the previous year. This clearly brought to light the fact that anyone can be depressed, and it shouldn’t be taken lightly, at all. It is not a sign of a person’s character flaw or weakness.

It is a real illness, which when detected, should be treated immediately. There are quite a number of factors that cause depression including the death of a loved one, genetics, brain biology and chemistry, a stressful phase in life, or early childhood experience. Depression can start at any age, but mostly start at a young age, affecting children, teenagers, young adults and older adults alike. There exist several types of depressive disorders. Main ones include;

• Major Depression: this involves severe symptoms for at least a two week period. Major depression interferes with one’s ability to work, sleep, study and enjoy life. Some individuals with major depression may even contemplate suicide.
• Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD): this form of depression continues for at least two years, but is less severe than major depression. People with PDD do not find pleasure in most activities, and can show signs of stress and irritability, and sad mood combined with low energy.
• Bipolar Disorder: this consists of both maniac and depressive episodes. This basically means that the person experiences episodes of very high moods (mania) or mild high moods (hypomania) to and severe low moods (depression). These shifts are also often separated by periods of normal moods.
• Post-natal Depression: no further details provided.

Physiologic symptoms of depression

Depression usually comes with a number of symptoms, which include:-

• Headaches, which may range from mild headaches to severe headaches. Depression may also make migraine headaches seem worse.
• Chest pain. Depression can add to the discomfort of other illnesses, for example, heart complications and lung problems.
• Digestive problems. Depression can make a person become constipated, or experience diarrhea. Feeling of nausea can also be as a result of depression.
• Sleeping problems. Some people with depression may find it hard to sleep during the night, while others wake up earlier than usual. However, other people with depression also sleep for longer hours than normal or usual.
• Fatigue and exhaustion. Some people with depression usually find it hard to wake up in the morning. Such individuals feel very exhausted after sleeping, no matter how long they have slept. Getting out of bed can be a big issue for such individuals. Depressed individuals also feel fatigued at the end of the day, even when they haven’t really done anything. This fatigue may be due to the fact that neither rest nor sleep can alleviate it.
• Change in appetite. Quite a number of individuals with depression have reported to have lost appetite. This consequently leads to loss of weight, depending on how long the individual lacks appetite. However, others get cravings and eat a lot. Some may even term this as “stress eating”. This, in turn, makes them increase weight.
• Psychomotor impairment. Individuals with depression may feel as if everything has slowed down. Such individuals may have slowed speech which can include decrease in volume when speaking and increased pauses before responding, slow thinking, body movements and silence (or muteness).
• Back pain. Depression can make someone who already has back pain, feel worse. A study done on 800 adults by the University of Alberta found out that individuals with depression are four times more likely to develop intense or disabling neck and low back pain than those not depressed.
• Muscle aches and joint pain. Depression can make muscle and joint pains worse. On the other hand, treating depression may improve arthritis-like physical symptoms.
• Stress. Depressed persons often show higher blood levels of stress hormones, as compared to their counterparts who are not depressed. One floating theory suggests that this may be caused by neglect or abuse in early childhood, which leads to permanent changes to the brain, like the over-production of CRF (corticotrophin-releasing factor). The CRF stimulates the pituitary gland to release hormones that prepare the body to fight, hence causing nervousness and stress.

Physiologic mechanisms

The Monoamine Hypothesis

The monoamine hypothesis of depression predicts that the underlying pathophysiologic basis of depression is a reduction in the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the central nervous system. This pathophysiology hypothesis appears to be supported by the mechanism of action of antidepressants. The antidepressants, which are agents that elevate the levels of the neurotransmitters in the brain, have all been shown to be effective in the alleviation of depressive symptoms. In this hypothesis, mania is caused by functional excess of monoamines at critical synapses in the brain.

Evidence from this hypothesis came from clinical observations and animal experiments, which showed that the antihypertensive drug reserpine, which causes a depletion of presynaptic stores of the brain monoaminergic transmitters, induced a syndrome resembling depression. It is clear that monoaminergic systems are responsible for many behavioral symptoms, like mood, vigilance, motivation and fatigue. Abnormal function and the behavioral consequences of either depression or the manic state may rise from altered synthesis, storage, or release of the neurotransmitters, as well as disturbed sensitivity of their receptors or subcellular messenger functions.

Treatment of depression

Depression can be treated through various methods, including:

Somatic interventions

This technique involves sensing and interrupting habitual patterns that may include depression symptoms such as anger, anxiety, or stress. This is followed by discharging bodily tension and related memories, enabling a calmer state. Some therapists utilize somatic interventions in childhood trauma treatment.

Pharmacotherapy

Medications like antidepressants are used to manage symptoms. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are preferred for their fewer side effects. SSRIs relieve symptoms by blocking reuptake of serotonin, increasing its availability (Mayo Clinic, 2023). SNRIs increase levels of serotonin and norepinephrine. Other classes include monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), which are used less frequently due to dietary restrictions and side effects (Nutt et al., 2021).

Psychotherapy

Various psychological therapies are effective, including Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), which has proved to be particularly effective. Other approaches include Interpersonal Therapy (IPT), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), and Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT). These therapies focus on changing negative thought patterns, improving interpersonal relationships, and developing coping strategies.

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

ECT involves passing electrical currents through the brain to induce seizures. It is generally considered safe and highly effective, especially for severe depression or cases unresponsive to medication. ECT can be particularly useful for patients with psychotic features, pregnant women, those with suicidal tendencies, or individuals intolerant to medications (UK National Health Service, 2022).

The Role of Circadian Rhythms in Depression

Depressive symptoms often correlate with disturbances in circadian rhythms, affecting sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, and hormonal secretion. These abnormalities suggest that the circadian system may serve as a therapeutic target in depression management. For instance, sleep disturbances are common in depression, and chronotherapy approaches aim to restore circadian function, alleviating symptoms (Golden et al., 2020). Disorders like abnormal melatonin secretion patterns and temperature regulation have been linked to depression, emphasizing the importance of circadian regulation in mood disorders.

Conclusion

Depression is a complex mental disorder with significant physiological, psychological, and social implications. Its prevalence underlines the importance of early detection, comprehensive understanding, and appropriate treatment. The current therapeutic landscape includes pharmacological, psychotherapeutic, and somatic interventions, with growing interest in circadian rhythm regulation. Awareness and acknowledgment remain vital, enabling affected individuals to seek help effectively. Future directions involve personalized medicine approaches targeting specific mechanisms such as circadian dysregulation to improve treatment outcomes.

References

• Golden, R. N., et al. (2020). Circadian Rhythms and Mood Disorders: The Role of Biological Clocks. Journal of Affective Disorders, 266, 654-661.
• Marina Marcus, M. Taghi Yasamy, Mark van Ommeren, & Dan Chrisholm. (2012). Depression: A Global Public Health Concern. World Health Organization.
• Nutt, D. J., et al. (2021). Pharmacological Treatments for Depression: Mechanisms and Efficacy. The Lancet Psychiatry, 8(1), 75-87.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. (2015). Depression. NIH Publication No. 15-3560.
• Mayo Clinic. (2023). Antidepressants: Selecting and Switching. Mayo Clinic Proceedings.
• UK National Health Service. (2022). Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT). NHS Digital.
• Hood, S., & Amir, S. (2017). The Role of Circadian Clock in Mood Disorders. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 232(2), 163-169.
• Leproult, R., & Van Cauter, E. (2010). Impact of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms on the Endocrine System and Mood. Journal of Sleep Research, 19(2), 23-36.
• Wulff, K., et al. (2012). Sleep and Circadian Rhythm Disruptions in Mood Disorders: Therapeutic Implications. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism, 23(5), 265-273.
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.).