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Describe the emergence of cognitive psychology and neuroscience – what prompted the development of these fields, and what is significant about the shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology and neuroscience? What can we understand about human behavior because of neuroscience that we could not have understood before?

Describe two methods of research for studying neural function (describe at least one that uses the behavioral or cognitive approach). How do these methods complement one another? What are the limitations of each method?

What does the case of Phineas Gage reveal about localization of functions in the brain? How can modern neuroscientists and psychologists learn from his injury?

Given your understanding of the functions of the different lobes of the brain, how might a person be affected by damage to the temporal lobe? Frontal lobe? Occipital lobe? Parietal lobe?

Paper For Above instruction

The emergence of cognitive psychology and neuroscience signifies a pivotal shift in understanding human cognition and brain function, driven largely by the limitations and decline of behaviorism. Behaviorism, dominant in the early 20th century, focused strictly on observable behaviors and dismissed internal mental processes, largely because these internal states could not be directly measured or observed. The development of cognitive psychology and neuroscience was prompted by advancements in technology such as brain imaging, electroencephalography (EEG), and neuroanatomical research, which revealed the complexity of mental processes and the brain’s structure-function relationships (Johnson, 2012). This shift allowed psychologists and neuroscientists to explore internal cognitive mechanisms, such as memory, attention, and perception, thus providing a more holistic understanding of human behavior. Moreover, the significance of the shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology lies in its acknowledgment of mental states as vital components of behavior, thus enabling more effective interventions for psychological disorders and a better understanding of the human mind (Neisser, 1967).

Neuroscience allows us to comprehend aspects of human behavior previously inaccessible without imaging and neurophysiological tools. For example, neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have elucidated the brain regions involved in specific cognitive tasks like language, executive function, and emotional regulation (Sperry, 1961). These insights have led to deeper understanding of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative conditions, revealing how specific brain region dysfunctions underlie behavioral symptoms. For instance, damage to the prefrontal cortex can result in impairments in decision-making and social behavior, underscoring the brain's localization of function. Such detailed mapping was impossible before neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies, which have revolutionized diagnostics and therapeutic strategies.

Research methods for studying neural function encompass a variety of approaches, including neuroimaging and electrophysiological techniques. One such method aligned with the behavioral approach is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). fMRI measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow, thus correlating neural activity with specific cognitive tasks (Ogawa et al., 1990). Its strength lies in providing spatially detailed images of active brain areas during cognitive functions. Conversely, electroencephalography (EEG) records electrical activity along the scalp, offering excellent temporal resolution that captures the rapid dynamics of neural activity (Niedermeyer & Lopes da Silva, 2004). EEG is particularly useful for studying cognitive processes like attention and sleep cycles but lacks the spatial specificity of fMRI.

These methods complement each other by providing a comprehensive picture of neural function—fMRI offers spatial resolution, while EEG provides temporal resolution. Used together, they enable researchers to understand not only where in the brain processes occur but also when they occur, enhancing our understanding of neural dynamics. Their limitations include the high cost and limited accessibility of fMRI, as well as the spatial ambiguity of EEG signals. Both techniques also require participants to stay still during data acquisition, which can be challenging in certain populations.

The case of Phineas Gage is pivotal in understanding localization of brain functions. Gage, a railroad worker, suffered a traumatic brain injury in 1848 when an iron rod penetrated his skull, damaging his prefrontal cortex. Remarkably, Gage survived but exhibited profound changes in personality, such as impulsiveness and difficulty planning—traits associated with the prefrontal cortex’s role in executive functions (Harlow, 1848). This case provided early evidence that specific brain areas are responsible for particular functions, supporting the localization theory. Modern neuroscientists and psychologists learn from Gage's case by studying more precise brain injuries and utilizing neuroimaging to understand structure-function relationships. His case laid foundational evidence that cognitive and emotional behaviors are rooted in localized brain regions, guiding current approaches to neuropsychology and neurosurgery.

In examining the functions of the brain lobes, damage to different areas results in distinctive deficits. The temporal lobe, responsible for auditory processing and memory, when damaged, can cause impairments in understanding speech (Wernicke’s area) and memory deficits, such as amnesia. The frontal lobe, involved in decision-making, planning, and motor control, if injured, may lead to personality changes, impulsivity, and motor deficits, including paralysis. Damage to the occipital lobe, primarily the visual processing center, can result in visual field deficits or blindness in part of the visual field (visual agnosia). Lastly, the parietal lobe, which integrates sensory information, when damaged, can cause neglect syndromes, where the individual ignores one side of their body or visual field, and impair spatial awareness (Hillis, 2006). Understanding these functions aids clinicians in diagnosing and planning rehabilitation strategies tailored to specific brain injuries.

References

  • Harlow, J. M. (1848). Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39(1), 389-393. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM184808032391707
  • Hillis, A. E. (2006). Parietal lobe. Neurologic clinics, 24(4), 849-859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nocl.2006.07.009
  • Johnson, S. M. (2012). The emergence of cognitive psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354312440122
  • Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. Scientific American, 216(3), 105-117. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0367-105
  • Niedermeyer, E., & Lopes da Silva, F. (2004). Electroencephalography: Basic principles, clinical applications, and related fields. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
  • Ogawa, S., Lee, T. M., Kay, A. R., & Tank, J. (1990). Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 87(24), 9868-9872. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.87.24.9868
  • Sperry, R. W. (1961). Cerebral specialization and the generality of cerebral disconnection. Psychological Review, 68(2), 213–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043274
  • Wernicke, C. (1874). Der aphasische Symptomencomplex: Eine neuropsychologische Studie auf anatomischer Basis. Cohn und Weigart.

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