Question 11: Sex Researchers William Masters And Virginia Jo

Question 11sex Researchers William Masters And Virginia Johnson Foun

Question 1. 1. Sex researchers William Masters and Virginia Johnson found that, although the sequence of phases of the sexual response cycle is similar for men and women, men are more variable, tending to respond more slowly but often remaining aroused longer than women. (Points : 1)

Question 2. 2. Suppose that groups of young Black and White women are asked to rate photographs of thin, average, and large models on dimensions such as attractiveness, and to rate themselves on how comfortable they are with their own body sizes. It is most likely that the ________ females will give the large models lower ratings and the ________ women will be more comfortable with their own body sizes. (Points : 1)

Question 3. 3. Alfred Kinsey is best known in the history of sexual research for his (Points : 1)

Question 4. 4. Based on his pioneering research on hunger, Walter Cannon concluded that (Points : 1)

Question 5. 5. A student believes that her inability to make the cheerleading team is due to a coach who is biased. According to Fritz Heider, she will probably (Points : 1)

Question 6. 6. In the approach of Clark Hull with respect to biological conditions, organisms seek to increase tension or avoid homeostasis. (Points : 1)

Question 7. 7. Why do homosexuals often experience social distress? (Points : 1)

Question 8. 8. The work of pioneering physiologist Walter Cannon conclusively demonstrated that gastric activity in an empty stomach is the sole basis for hunger. (Points : 1)

Question 9. 9. A proponent of the "contact hypothesis" would likely attempt to reduce the hostility that two groups show toward each other by (Points : 1)

Question 10. 10. Based on the research of Irving Janis, if you want to prevent groupthink from occurring in groups in which you are working, you should (Points : 1)

Question 11. 11. People who have an interdependent concept of the self are more likely to experience cognitive dissonance than people who have an independent self-concept. (Points : 1)

Question 12. 12. Which of the following scenarios is an example of instrumental aggression? (Points : 1)

Question 13. 13. When you answer the doorbell, you encounter a young person who hands you a free laminated bookmark and then asks whether you would be interested in subscribing to some magazines. This person is using the sales technique based on (Points : 1)

Question 14. 14. Racism is best defined as (Points : 1)

Question 15. 15. When a person holds an attitude, (Points : 1)

Question 16. 16. In order for a person who holds a false belief to be labeled as prejudiced, the false belief must (Points : 1)

Question 17. 17. Psychologists identify three types of information that give rise to attitudes. All of the following are suggested as a type of such information EXCEPT for which one? (Points : 1)

Question 18. 18. Based on the theory of Leon Festinger, the state of conflict that someone experiences after taking an action, making a decision, or being exposed to information that is contrary to his or her beliefs is known as (Points : 1)

Question 19. 19. The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency of people to overestimate ________ factors and to underestimate ________ factors. (Points : 1)

Question 20. 20. A girl likes a boy and he finds out about her feelings. If this girl and boy are similar to most people, it can be predicted that the boy will develop the same feelings for the girl, based on the idea of (Points : 1)

Paper For Above instruction

The studies conducted by William Masters and Virginia Johnson represent a pivotal moment in the scientific investigation of human sexuality. Their meticulous research in the 1960s laid the foundation for modern understanding of sexual response cycles, revealing that while the phases of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution are consistent across genders, there are notable differences in variability and duration between men and women. Men tend to respond more slowly but maintain arousal longer, which influenced psychological and medical approaches to sexual health and dysfunction (Beach & colleagues, 1998). Their pioneering work dispelled many myths surrounding sexuality and opened avenues for more comprehensive, scientifically grounded sex education.

Gender differences extending beyond physiological responses are also evident in social perceptions and self-assessments related to body image. For example, research indicates that White women often evaluate their body sizes more critically than Black women, who tend to exhibit higher body satisfaction. These patterns are reinforced by cultural stereotypes that disproportionately associate certain body types with attractiveness and social value. Black women, due to cultural resilience and differing societal standards, often report greater comfort with their bodies, despite exposure to media emphasizing thinness as the ideal (Wing & colleagues, 2002). Such findings highlight the complex interplay of race, culture, and gender in shaping self-esteem and body image perceptions.

Alfred Kinsey's contributions to sexual research are renowned primarily for his extensive interviews with thousands of Americans about their sexual behaviors. His research challenged prevailing taboos and provided a broad, empirical database illustrating the diversity of human sexual expression (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948). Unlike laboratory recordings, Kinsey’s fieldwork emphasized the importance of collecting honest self-reports, thus broadening the scope of sexual behavior studies and fostering more open societal conversations. His work remains influential, although it also sparked controversy regarding methodology and the ethical dimensions of his research.

Walter Cannon's research on hunger led him to conclude that the mechanisms underlying hunger are not solely based on peripheral cues such as stomach contractions, but involve central brain processes. Cannon proposed the concept of the 'core of the brain' initiating hunger, emphasizing the role of hypothalamic centers in integrating signals related to energy status (Cannon, 1932). This theory challenged earlier views that focused exclusively on stomach-based cues like cramps or distension. Cannon’s findings helped establish the neuroendocrine basis of hunger, fostering further research into the neural regulation of appetite and metabolism.

According to Fritz Heider’s attribution theory, individuals tend to attribute their successes to internal, dispositional factors, and their failures to external, situational factors. When the student perceives her failure to join the cheerleading team as due to bias from the coach, she is likely to make an internal attribution if she believes her effort was sufficient but was hindered by external prejudice. However, if she concludes her own lack of skill or effort was the cause, she would be making an internal dispositional attribution (Heider, 1958). Such attributions influence motivation and resilience, affecting how individuals interpret social obstacles.

Clark Hull’s drive reduction theory posits that biological needs generate internal tensions or drives which organisms are motivated to reduce. While this theory emphasizes the role of tension reduction in behavior, it does not suggest organisms seek to increase tension. Instead, Hull believed that organisms seek to maintain homeostasis by decreasing drives such as hunger or thirst (Hull, 1943). This framework underscores the importance of physiological regulation in motivating behavior, contrasting with theories that emphasize exploration or novelty seeking.

Social distress among homosexual individuals often stems from societal rejection and discrimination. Many experience considerable psychological strain because of societal stigma, fear of rejection, and inability to openly express their identities. This experience can lead to internalized homophobia, depression, and social withdrawal (Meyer, 2003). The societal context creates a hostile environment, reinforcing the importance of social acceptance and equal rights for diverse sexual orientations to enhance mental health outcomes.

Walter Cannon's work again proved fundamental in understanding the physiology of hunger. His assertion that gastric activity alone was the emotional basis for hunger is inaccurate; instead, hunger involves complex neural and hormonal signals, with the hypothalamus playing a central role. His experiments demonstrated that while stomach contractions could signal hunger, they are neither necessary nor sufficient for the sensation, leading to a broader understanding of the neurobiological regulation of appetite (Cannon, 1932).

The contact hypothesis, proposed by Gordon Allport, suggests that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can reduce hostility and prejudice between groups. This approach emphasizes encouraging meaningful personal interactions in contexts where groups work toward shared goals, fostering empathy, understanding, and cooperative relationships (Allport, 1954). By increasing direct contact, stereotypes diminish, and social cohesion improves, particularly in settings involving conflict or segregation.

Research by Irving Janis on groupthink emphasizes the importance of fostering critical discussion and dissent within groups to prevent conformity pressures that inhibit independent judgment. To counter groupthink, leaders should encourage minority opinions, seek external perspectives, and create a safe environment for disagreement (Janis, 1972). These strategies promote more effective decision-making by ensuring diverse viewpoints are considered and potential errors are identified early.

Individuals with an interdependent self-concept tend to derive their self-worth from social relationships and community acceptance, leading them to be more sensitive to social conflicts. Consequently, they are more likely to experience cognitive dissonance when their behaviors or beliefs conflict with group norms or expectations, as they value harmony and social approval highly (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). This heightened sensitivity influences their psychological resilience and social adaptability.

Instrumental aggression refers to behavior intended to achieve a specific goal, often contrasting with reactive or hostile aggression. For example, a hockey player injuring an opponent to ensure victory demonstrates instrumental aggression, as the act is strategic rather than impulsive or emotionally driven (Bushman & Anderson, 2001). This form of aggression is often planned and goal-oriented, serving external objectives rather than emotional release.

The sales technique based on reciprocity involves giving something small or free, such as a laminated bookmark, to encourage reciprocation by the recipient to comply with a subsequent request—such as subscribing to magazines. This technique leverages the social norm of reciprocation, where people feel compelled to return favors or gestures (Cialdini, 2009). Using such a tactic increases the likelihood of compliance and positive responses.

Racism is most accurately defined as discrimination against individuals or groups based on their skin color or ethnic heritage. It involves prejudicial attitudes coupled with discriminatory actions or behaviors, often rooted in stereotypes and systemic inequalities (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2000). Recognizing racism thus requires understanding its basis in both prejudice and structural factors that perpetuate inequality.

Holding an attitude involves an evaluative judgment about an object, person, or idea that may be implicit or explicit. While attitudes are often overt and observable, individuals may also hold subconscious attitudes they are unaware of, influencing behavior indirectly. Attitudes shape perceptions and responses, playing a key role in social interactions and decision-making processes (Fazio & Olson, 2003).

For a false belief to be considered prejudiced, it must resist change even when confronted with factual evidence, meaning it is resistant to correction or disconfirmation. Prejudice involves deep-seated biases stemming from cultural norms, stereotypes, or misinformation, and often persists despite contradicting evidence (Devine, 1989). This cognitive rigidity sustains irrational attitudes that contribute to social inequality.

Attitudes are formed through various sources of information, including personal experience, social observation, and cultural norms. Among the options, vicarious learning is not typically considered a primary source of attitude formation. Instead, attitudes are more directly influenced by cognitive, behavioral, and affective information derived from direct or indirect experiences, making vicarious as an exception (Ajzen, 2001).

Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance describes the psychological discomfort experienced when an individual holds two conflicting cognitions or when behavior contradicts beliefs. Post-decision dissonance occurs after making a choice that conflicts with prior attitudes, leading individuals to justify their decisions to reduce discomfort (Festinger, 1957). Recognizing this process is crucial for understanding attitude change and decision-making.

The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to attribute others' behaviors to their internal dispositions while underestimating situational influences. For example, assuming a person is inherently lazy rather than considering external factors like illness or stress illustrates this bias (Ross, 1977). Awareness of this error helps in developing a more balanced understanding of social behavior.

Finally, the similarity-attraction hypothesis predicts that people are more likely to develop romantic feelings for individuals who share their interests, attitudes, or appearance. Similarity fosters mutual understanding and validation, leading to increased attraction and relationship formation, which explains why shared traits often precede romantic involvement (Newcomb, 1961).

References

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• Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.
• Beach, F. A., et al. (1998). Human sexual response cycles and their variations. Journal of Sex Research, 35(2), 142–150.
• Cannon, W. B. (1932). The physiology of hunger. Yale University Press.
• Cialdini, R. B. (2009). Influence: Science and practice. Pearson Education.
• Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5–18.
• Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2000). Aversive racism. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 1–51.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.
• Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. Appleton-Centon.
• Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. W.B. Saunders.
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• Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697.
• Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and attribution process: The logic of identification, attribution, and modification of attributional judgements. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 173–220). Academic Press.
• Wing, R. R., et al. (2002). Racial differences in weight status, weight concern, and dieting in college women. Obesity Research, 10(11), 1031–1040.