Question 1a: A Group Of Researchers Is Replicating An Earlie

Question 1a Group Of Researchers Is Replicating An Earlier Experiment

Question 1. A group of researchers is replicating an earlier experiment that indicated that participants who received task-specific feedback were more likely to persist at a task than participants who received more general, encouraging feedback. In an effort to ensure that participants are not treated differently based on the condition that they are in, the researchers automate all of the procedures and follow a written protocol when interacting with the participants. The researchers are trying to minimize: placebo effects. demand characteristics. experimenter expectancy effects. participant suspicion effects.

Question 2. In a study examining the effects of heredity on intelligence, researchers compare the correlation of intelligence test scores of identical twins with the correlation of intelligence test scores for fraternal twins. In this experiment, the researcher is assuming that the comparison of identical and fraternal twins is a measure of heredity. This is an example of a ________________ inference. construct statistical generalizability causal question.

Question 3 Researchers interested in studying the effect of happiness on various health outcomes randomly assign each person who comes in to the laboratory to one of two study conditions. However, several people in the study are friends and drove to the study together. The group of friends indicates that they need to be in the same condition of the study so that they can all leave at the together to get home. Accommodating the subjects' request might threaten validity because of the effect of: regression to the mean. attrition. maturation. selection.

Question 4 In an experiment on the effects of everyday stress on memory, a researcher has participants record every hour how much stress they are feeling and then complete a short-term memory task. The results of the study reveal that everyday stress may affect short-term memory. After evaluating the results of the study, however, the researcher is concerned that people who have high scores on neuroticism questionnaires are more likely to report stress and exhibit memory problems than people who have low scores. The researcher is worried about __________ validity. construct internal statistical conclusion external

Question 5 __________ validity concerns the generalizability of findings beyond the present study. ecological construct statistical conclusion external

Question 6 A researcher is investigating the ability of aversive punishment to decrease students' disruptive behaviors in class. She is worried that the number of punishments will vary from student to student and thus will bias the results of the study. The researcher would do well to: run a pilot test before conducting the study. manipulate participants' knowledge about the study. use a yoked control-group. use a red herring technique.

Question 7 A psychologist is examining whether a new type of therapy is effective in the treatment of hallucinations and delusions. The psychologist administers a questionnaire to several patients with schizophrenia and selects those patients with the most severe psychotic symptoms. She randomly assigns the participants to the experimental condition in which they receive a new experimental drug, or the control condition in which they receive the standard medication. She then administers the same test of psychotic symptoms to assess delusional and hallucinations in the two groups at the end of the study. Which of the following threats are not ruled out in the above study? history regression to the mean testing attrition

Question 8 A researcher is studying the effects of a new medication that promises to be extremely effective in the treatment of schizophrenia. She randomly assigns severely psychotic patients to three different conditions (standard medication; experimental medication; a wait-list control group) and measures delusional symptoms with the same questionnaire both before and after the study. The researcher uses a wait-list control group in order to: ensure the ethical treatment of the patients. rule out history effects. decrease maturation effects. rule out testing effects.

Question 9 A researcher found that whether or not a person is tired impacts how much soda one drinks. She also found that the effect of tiredness was magnified when the soda was cold (versus room temperature). Since the way tiredness impacted soda consumption was different based on the temperature of soda, the researcher reported that there was a(n): dependent effect. independent effect. interaction effect. multi-factor effect.

Question 10 A disordinal interaction is represented by lines that: intersect and are parallel. have similar slopes, but are not parallel. intersect and are not parallel. have opposite slopes and are parallel.

Question 11 In an experiment examining the effects of stress on decision making, researchers use two independent variables with two levels each. The first independent variable is temperature of the room (65 degrees and 95 degrees) and the second is noise in the room (present or absent). Researchers randomly assign participants to one of the two temperature conditions and then have the participants perform decision-making tasks in both conditions of the noise variable (present and absent). The researchers allow subjects to rest in between exposure to the noise variable and use counterbalancing of the noise conditions. This experiment uses a(n) _____ design, since subjects are randomly assigned to one independent variable, but exposed to all conditions of the second independent variable. mixed-factorial between-subjects factorial within-subjects factorial mixed-subjects factorial

Question 12 A researcher is looking at the effects of goal striving (i.e., low, medium, and high) and neuroticism (i.e., low, high) on achievement. The researcher is interested in examining the difference between high and low goal striving for high neuroticism individuals. The researcher is examining a(n): three-way interaction. simple contrast. simple main effect. two simple contrasts.

Question 13 Studies with factorial designs are better than students with single-factor designs at capturing the real-life complexity of the real world because they: include mediator variables. include more than one independent variables. eliminate confounding variables. include several control variables.

Question 14 Researchers conduct a study to understand whether pre-existing self-esteem and time of day impact how frequently a student raises her/his hand in class to answer a question. Results suggest that both self-esteem and time of day impact hand raising. Pre-existing self-esteem in this study is a(n) _____ variable. control selected independent situational confounding

Question 15 A researcher is conducting an experiment on two predictors of conformity: group size and the presence of a defector (absent, present). The participants are randomly assigned to two different group sizes, one composed of 3 participants and one composed of 8 participants, and then participate in absent and present defector conditions. This is an example of a(n): between-subjects factorial design with a within-subject variable. mixed-factorial design. within-subjects factorial design. within-subjects factorial design with an experimentally manipulated variable.

Question 16 A psychologist who is investigating the effects of different levels of sweetness on fluid consumption would like to use the same participants in each condition. She is worried, however, that the order of the conditions may influence participants' responses and decides to use the complete counterbalancing design. In earlier studies, she used 120 participants. In the current study, she would like to use 7 conditions and finds that the number of participants needed increases: exponentionally. arithmetically. hardly at all. not at all.

Question 17 If a researcher wanted to be sure that experimental groups were equivalent, the best method would be to use a _______________ design. random-groups matched-groups between-subjects within-subjects

Question 18 In order to reduce the impact of differences in participant characteristics, a researcher ensures that each participant has an equal probability of assignment to any one of the conditions in the experiment. This is an example of: counterbalancing. random assignment. researcher experience. participant bias.

Question 19 A researcher wants to measure the effects of the presence of other people on performance. She has the same participants engage in both experimental conditions, so that each participant performs the task alone and in the presence of other people. This is an example of a study with a ______________ design. between-subjects random-groups within-subjects independent-groups

Question 20 A researcher is investigating the impact of different levels of anxiety on the performance of a speech task. The researcher finds that at moderate levels of anxiety the students perform very well. However, at both lower and higher levels of anxiety, the students perform very poorly. This is an example of a _________________ effect. carryover progressive multicausal nonlinear

Question 21 Unlike other types of counterbalancing, one type of design does not try to ensure that each condition appears equally often in each position. In a(n) _____________ design, the logic is that on average, for any order of the conditions, each condition will end up in the same average position. Latin Square random-selected-orders block randomization ABBA

Question 22 A researcher wants to assess whether a person's mood affects mathematical reasoning. Participants will complete 50 basic, intermediate and difficult math problems. _______________ may be particularly important in this study because participant fatigue may be a factor. Bias Counterbalancing Random assignment Covariation

Question 23 One of the ways that researchers can control for order effects is to use: random assignment. counterbalancing. the same subjects. random sampling.

Question 24 An industrial organization psychologist is hired by a company to investigate whether a new employee management strategy has resulted in greater employee productivity. A major concern for this psychologist should be: why the company wanted to initiate the study. how the results of the study will affect his own theories about efficiency. ensuring the confidentiality of the employees' responses. whether there is even a problem with employee productivity.

Question 25 A researcher has been hired by a non-profit organization to evaluate the best strategy for implementing and delivering a program designed to treat the needs of the homeless population in the community. The researcher has been hired to conduct a(n): efficiency assessment. program theory and design assessment. process evaluation. needs assessment.

Question 26 In a posttest-only design with a nonequivalent control group, participants in one condition: and a nonequivalent group are exposed to the treatment, and scores from both groups are obtained after the treatment ends. and a nonequivalent group are exposed to the treatment, and scores from both groups are obtained before and after the treatment ends. are exposed to a treatment, a nonequivalent group is not exposed to the treatment, and scores from both groups are obtained after the treatment ends. are exposed to a treatment, a nonequivalent group is not exposed to the treatment, and scores from both groups are obtained before and after the treatment ends.

Question 27 _____________ occurs when knowledge, services, or other experiences intended for one group are unintentionally received by another group. Contamination Adoption Diffusion Crossover

Question 28 The procedure for the control group appears ______________ the dashed line. above to the left of below to the right of

Question 29 In order to improve internal validity in a simple interrupted time-series design, researchers need to: use at least 100 observation periods. have enough observations to establish pretest and posttest trends in the dependent variable. have equal number of pretest and posttest observations. add another treatment intervention.

Question 30 A researcher examining the effects of a new mathematics instructional technique measures the math scores of the students in the intervention classroom ten times before the intervention and ten times after the intervention. Which of the following still remains a threat to validity? regression to the mean history maturation testing

Paper For Above instruction

The process of scientific research relies heavily on the validity and reliability of experimental procedures to produce credible results. In the context of replicating earlier experiments, specific methodological considerations are essential to minimize biases and extraneous influences. The scenario involving researchers automating procedures and following strict protocols exemplifies efforts to reduce demand characteristics, which are cues that might influence participants' behavior based on their perceptions of the study's aims. By automating interactions and adhering to a written protocol, the researchers aim to diminish the likelihood that participants alter their responses due to perceived expectations, thereby enhancing internal validity and ensuring that observed effects are attributable to the intervention itself rather than to participant or experimenter cues.

In another experimental design focusing on genetic influences on intelligence, comparing correlations between identical and fraternal twins is indicative of inferential reasoning about heredity. This compares the degree of similarity to infer the effect of genetic factors, illustrating a form of causal inference. Such studies assume that environmental factors are controlled or similar across the twin types, so differences in correlation are attributed predominantly to genetic similarity. These inferences often form the basis of behavioral genetics, and their validity depends on the proper control of environmental confounders and representative sampling, which lends support to causal interpretations about heredity's role in intelligence.

Addressing participant assignment, the issue of a friend group needing to be in the same condition raises concerns related to experimental validity. Specifically, this scenario could threaten internal validity through selection bias and confounding, as the non-random assignment based on friendship may intertwine personal characteristics with the treatment condition. Such compromises emphasize the importance of proper randomization and controlling for group differences to uphold the integrity of causal claims in experimental research.

When evaluating ecological validity, concerns often arise regarding whether laboratory findings generalize to real-world settings. In a stress-memory study, neuroticism as a personality trait introduces a confounding variable that affects the internal validity, primarily because high neuroticism may influence both stress reports and memory performance independently of the experimental manipulation. This scenario underscores the importance of validity constructs to ensure that interpretations accurately reflect the constructs intended to be measured, rather than artifacts of personality traits or other extraneous factors.

External validity pertains to the extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the specific context of the study. The concern about sample characteristics, ecological validity, and the representativeness of the population is fundamental for applying research conclusions to broader populations or real-world settings. Ensuring external validity often involves replication across diverse samples and settings, factors critical for translating scientific knowledge into practical applications.

Controlling extraneous variability such as unequal punishment across participants in behavioral studies involves techniques like pilot testing and standardized procedures, which improve internal validity by reducing confounding influences. A yoked control-group, for example, ensures that the amount of punishment or intervention is proportionally matched across subjects, thereby isolating the effect of the independent variable—the punishment itself—on the dependent variable of interest.

Threats to internal validity also include historical, regression to the mean, testing effects, and attrition. For instance, in a treatment efficacy study for psychosis, history effects—external events influencing outcomes—may confound results if not properly controlled. Regression to the mean might also threaten validity when selecting extreme cases, as their scores tend to move toward the average over time regardless of intervention. The study design must carefully address these factors through control groups and repeated measures to ensure accurate attribution of observed effects to the treatment.

Using a wait-list control group in clinical trials aligns with ethical considerations, allowing all participants eventual access to the treatment while also serving as a comparison group. This design aims to control for history and maturation effects by measuring change over time in both control and experimental groups, which bolsters internal validity by ensuring that observed differences are attributable to the intervention introduced.

Interaction effects occur when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another. In the case of caffeine and sleep deprivation affecting performance, an interaction would suggest that the impact of caffeine varies at different levels of sleep deprivation, indicating a multiplicative rather than additive effect. Recognizing and analyzing such interactions provide nuanced understanding of how multiple factors combine to influence outcomes.

Disordinal interactions, characterized by lines that intersect and are not parallel, reflect situations where the direction of effects reverses across levels of variables. This contrasts with ordinal interactions, where lines are parallel or do not cross, indicating consistent effect sizes but different magnitudes. Visualizing and interpreting these interactions aids in understanding complex moderation effects within factorial designs.

The use of within-subjects designs, such as having participants perform tasks in both conditions of a second variable, enhances statistical power and controls for individual differences. However, they are susceptible to order effects, which can be mitigated through counterbalancing. Counterbalancing ensures that each condition appears in each position equally often, averaging out potential sequence effects and increasing the internal validity of the study.

Counterbalancing techniques include Latin square designs, which systematically rotate the order of conditions to balance order effects across participants. Unlike complete randomization, Latin squares do not require the total enumeration of all possible orders but guarantee that each condition appears exactly once in each ordinal position across participants, thus controlling for order-related biases.

In experimental psychology, fatigue effects are a significant concern when participants perform multiple trials or conditions, potentially confounding the results. Counterbalancing is especially critical in such cases to distribute the effects evenly across conditions, ensuring that fatigue does not systematically bias the outcomes associated with specific conditions, thereby maintaining internal validity.

Order effects can be controlled through methodologies such as counterbalancing, where the sequence of conditions is varied systematically among participants. This approach minimizes potential confounding due to practice, fatigue, or carryover effects, thus preserving the integrity of causal inferences drawn from the data.

Random assignment is fundamental for equating groups at baseline, thereby enhancing the internal validity of experimental research. It distributes participant characteristics evenly across conditions, minimizing selection bias and confounding variables. This process is critical for ensuring that observed differences in outcomes can be attributed confidently to the manipulated independent variable rather than pre-existing differences among groups.

In between-subjects designs, different participants are assigned to each condition, while in within-subjects designs, the same participants experience all conditions. Within-subjects designs are particularly efficient when individual differences are a major source of variability, but they require careful counterbalancing to control for order effects that could influence the dependent variable.

Looking at nonlinear effects, such as the inverted-U relationship between anxiety levels and performance, illustrates that the impact of psychological variables often follows complex patterns. Recognizing such effects informs tailored interventions and improves theoretical models by acknowledging that more of a good thing is not always better.

Disordinal interaction lines intersect and are not parallel, indicating a reversal of effects across conditions. In the graphical representation, this suggests that the influence of one independent variable on the dependent variable depends markedly on the level of another variable, necessitating detailed analysis to interpret the nature of the moderation effect.

Designs that do not enforce equal frequency of conditions across all order positions, such as the ABBA technique, rely on the principle that, on average, each condition appears equally often in each position. These