Reading Common Fallacies Or Errors In Reasoning Rev July 200

Reading Common Fallacies Or Errors In Reasoning Rev July 2005

Learning about some common errors in reasoning will help you to spot weak points in arguments. This handout will help you identify some of those errors, also known as fallacies. Some of these fallacies are known by different names (alternative names are given in parentheses). Many more fallacies than those listed are possible because the ways arguments may go wrong are many and these have been characterized in a variety of ways.

Non Sequitur: The stated conclusion is not necessarily a logical result of the facts presented. Example: All the homes in this area are expensive; therefore, they must be well built. Expensive does not necessarily mean well built.

Argument to the People (Ad Populum): The attempt to win popular assent to a conclusion by arousing the emotions and enthusiasms of the multitude rather than by appeal to the facts. Example: This country has been run too long by old, out-of-date, out-of-touch, entrenched politicians protecting the special interests that got them elected.

False Comparison (Faulty Analogy): Assuming that because two things are alike in one or more respects, they are necessarily alike in some other respect or in all respects. Example: No one objects to a physician looking up a difficult case in medical books. Why shouldn’t students taking a difficult examination be permitted to use their textbooks? People who have a cup of coffee every morning before they can function have no less a problem than alcoholics who have to have their alcohol each day to sustain them. Do not assume that the two situations are alike in all respects because they are alike in some respects.

Either / Or Fallacy (Black or White Fallacy / False Dilemma): Asserting that a complex issue has only two sides, often one right, one wrong. Example: America: Love It or Leave It. Students come to college either to work hard or to loaf. There are more options to consider than the two presented.

Hasty Generalization: An argument based on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence. Example: Deaths from drug overdoses in Miami have doubled in the last two years. Therefore, more Americans are dying from drug abuse. Is the evidence about increased drug use in Miami representative of drug use in the United States?

Personal Attack (Ad Hominem): Attack on a person’s character or circumstances rather than his or her argument. Example: If you hold that nothing is self-evident, I will not argue with you for it is clear that you are a foolish quibbler who will not be convinced. Criticize the argument, not the arguer.

Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question): Restating a claim as if it were proven, inviting us to assume something has been proved when it has merely been restated. Example: Free trade will be good for this country. The reason is patently clear. Isn’t it obvious that unrestricted commercial relations will bestow on all sections of this nation the benefits that result when there is an unimpeded flow of goods between countries? Does free trade equal unrestricted commercial relations?

Red Herring (Changing the Subject): Introducing an irrelevant point to divert attention from the main issue. Example: Andy: “Hey what’s with all this junk food you bought? You’re always railing at me about eating healthy.” Aunt Bea: “Don’t fuss -- it was on sale.” Saying that the junk food was on sale is beside the point since it is possible to buy healthy food at reasonable prices.

Bandwagon Appeal: Validating a point by suggesting everyone else believes it. Example: Drink Coca Cola! For 100 years it’s been the favorite drink of Americans. You’ll like it! This argument assumes that what the crowd thinks or believes is right and that to be right one must go along with the crowd.

False Cause (Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc): Implying that because one event follows another, the first causes the second. Example: I took EZ-No-Cold, and two days later, my cold disappeared. Perhaps your cold would have been gone in two days if you had taken nothing for it. We should not rebuild the docks because every time we do a big hurricane comes along and damages them.

Testimonial: Using a respected or well-known but non-expert figure to endorse a product, position, or cause. Example: Noted psychologist Dr. Frasier Crane recommends that you buy the EZ-Rest Hot Tub. What makes a psychologist/actor an expert in hot tubs?

Card-Stacking: Selecting only facts that support the writer’s position while omitting opposing facts. Example: A Ford Explorer is a better car than a Lexus SUV because it has more room, looks better, and costs less. The advertisers stressed the virtues of the Ford Explorer but omitted comparisons on the Lexus SUV’s smoother ride, increased mileage, better repair record, enhanced comfort, and acceleration.

Exercise: Identify the fallacy in the following arguments

1. If you know about BMW, you either own one or want one. (E: Either / Or Fallacy)
2. The congressman is clearly an able leader. He has a warm family life and attends Church every Sunday. (B: Argument to the People)
3. The Chinese people have a natural talent for art. Two Chinese girls took an art course with me last semester, and they were the best students in the class. (F: Hasty Generalization)
4. A friend has recommended a new investment opportunity, but your significant other rejects the recommendation with the remark, “How can you possibly value the advice of that idiot?" (H: Ad Hominem)
5. The Golden Rule is basic to every system of ethics ever devised, and everyone accepts it in some form or other. It is, therefore, an undeniably sound moral principle. (D: Argument to the People)
6. “The Inquisition must have been justified and beneficial, if whole peoples invoked and defended it, if men of the loftiest souls founded and created it severally and impartially, and its very adversaries applied it on their own account, pyre answering pyre.” -- Benetton Croce (A: Non Sequitur)
7. The Macklin Company was more prosperous before Ms. Williams became president. Clearly, she is the cause of the decline. (L: Card Stacking)
8. I have to balance my personal checkbook; why shouldn’t the federal government have to? (G: Circular Reasoning)
9. After all, my views on gun control have been endorsed by some Hollywood actors—Sylvester Stallone, Barbra Streisand, and Alec Baldwin, among others. How could you not agree with me? (I: Bandwagon Appeal)
10. Women are so sentimental! My mother and sister always cry at the movies. My father and I never do. (J: False Cause)
11. If we can send a spacecraft to Mars, then we should be able to find a cure for cancer. (G: Circular Reasoning)
12. The Great American Soup. About as close as you can get to homemade without making it yourself. (C: Faulty Analogy)
13. You can tell Frank is a disreputable person by the character of his associates because people who go around with somebody like Frank are the lowest type. (B: Argument to the People)
14. I am the father of two daughters. When I hear this argument that we can’t protect freedom in Europe, in Asia, or in our own hemisphere and still meet our domestic problems, I think it is a phony argument. It is just like saying that I can’t take care of Lucy because I have Linda Bird. We have to take care of both and we have to meet them head-on. (E: Hasty Generalization)
15. Television can’t be harmful to children because it occupies their attention for hours and thus keeps them off the street. (J: False Cause)
16. You don’t want to be a nurse. You have to go through all the training and then what do you get? You work with sick, crabby people and take orders from doctors who don’t know the patients as well as you do. You’re underpaid, overworked, and unappreciated. Moreover, having to work different shifts makes a normal home life impossible. (F: Ad Hominem)

Paper For Above instruction

In the realm of critical thinking and logical reasoning, recognizing common fallacies is essential for assessing the strength and validity of arguments. Fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the logical foundation of arguments, often leading to false or misleading conclusions. This paper explores various prevalent fallacies, illustrating their characteristics, examples, and implications for proper reasoning.

Introduction to Fallacies in Reasoning

Fallacies are mistakes in logic that can appear convincing at first glance but fail when scrutinized rigorously. They are often employed intentionally or unintentionally to persuade, obfuscate, or distract from the real issues. Understanding these errors enhances our ability to question arguments critically, avoid being duped, and construct more sound reasoning ourselves.

Major Types of Fallacies

Non Sequitur

The non sequitur (Latin for “it does not follow”) describes a conclusion that does not logically follow from the premises. For example, claiming that all homes in an area are well built because they are expensive involves a non sequitur. This fallacy distorts reasoning by assuming a connection where none exists, emphasizing the importance of ensuring that conclusions are supported directly by evidence.

Argument to the People (Ad Populum)

This fallacy attempts to sway opinions by appealing to popular beliefs, emotions, or enthusiasms rather than facts. An example would be urging people to support a political candidate because they have widespread support, rather than based on their policies or qualifications. Such appeals distract from rational evaluation by leveraging the sentiment of the crowd.

False Comparison (Faulty Analogy)

Faulty analogy occurs when two situations are compared based on superficial similarities, assuming they are similar in all respects. For instance, comparing students using textbooks during a difficult exam to alcoholics needing daily alcohol is flawed because the situations are fundamentally different despite some resemblances. Recognizing the limits of analogy prevents flawed conclusions based on incomplete comparisons.

Either / Or Fallacy (False Dilemma)

This fallacy reduces complex issues to only two options, often framing one as the only acceptable choice. A typical example is “Love It or Leave It,” which ignores other possibilities such as compromise or moderation. Such simplification can hinder nuanced discussions and obscure potential solutions.

Hasty Generalization

Hasty generalizations make sweeping conclusions based on insufficient evidence. An example from the provided arguments is assuming increased drug overdoses in Miami represent nationwide trends without representative data. Proper generalizations require representative samples and adequate evidence.

Personal Attack (Ad Hominem)

This fallacy involves attacking the person making an argument rather than addressing the argument itself. For example, dismissing someone's comment because they are labeled a “foolish quibbler” shifts focus away from the substance of their reasoning and undermines rational debate.

Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question)

Circular reasoning restates a conclusion as evidence for itself, avoiding actual proof. An example is claiming free trade benefits are obvious without providing substantive reasons, merely restating the conclusion as if it were a premise. This fallacy weakens argumentative rigor.

Red Herring

Introducing irrelevant topics to divert attention from the main issue characterizes this fallacy. For instance, responding to concerns about healthy eating by mentioning sales promotions sidesteps the primary health concern, misdirecting the discussion.

Bandwagon Appeal

This fallacy relies on popular opinion to validate a claim, implying that if many believe something, it must be true. Endorsements by celebrities, such as actors supporting a product, exemplify this tactic. It appeals to conformity rather than evidence-based reasoning.

False Cause (Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc)

Assuming causation solely based on sequential correlation exemplifies this fallacy. For example, taking a cold remedy and recovering shortly afterward does not necessarily mean the remedy caused the recovery. Such fallacies risk attributing false causality, clouding judgment.

Testimonial and Card-Stacking

Testimonial fallacies occur when endorsements by non-experts are used to support claims, as in celebrity endorsements for products unrelated to their expertise. Card-stacking involves selectively presenting supporting facts and omitting contrary evidence, leading to biased portrayals—such as highlighting only positive qualities of a vehicle without discussing its shortcomings.

Implications and Importance of Recognizing Fallacies

Recognizing these fallacies is crucial for developing critical thinking skills and engaging in rational discourse. Falling prey to logical errors can result in accepting falsehoods, making poor decisions, and hindering problem-solving. Conversely, identifying fallacies during arguments enhances our ability to navigate debates more effectively and promotes intellectual honesty.

Conclusion

In conclusion, understanding common fallacies—such as non sequitur, ad populum, faulty analogy, false dilemma, hasty generalization, ad hominem, circular reasoning, red herring, bandwagon appeal, and false cause—equips individuals with the tools for critical analysis. Awareness of these errors fosters more accurate, reasoned, and persuasive communication, which is vital in academic, professional, and everyday contexts.

References

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