Reading Exercises From Copi Irving: Introduction To Logic

Reading Exercises Fromcopi Irving Mintroduction To Logic 1

Identify the premises and conclusions in the following passages. Some premises do support the conclusion; others do not. Note that premises may support conclusions directly or indirectly and that even simple passages may contain more than one argument. Each of the following passages may contain more than one argument.

The passages include various arguments and explanations. For each, determine whether it functions primarily as an argument or an explanation. If it is an argument, identify its premises and conclusion. If it is an explanation, clarify what is being explained and what the explanation is about.

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The first passage discusses whether it is better for a prince to be loved or feared. Machiavelli argues that, while ideally one should be both, it is safer to be feared than loved. The reasoning supports the conclusion that being feared offers more reliably maintained power because love is fickle and based on obligation that can be broken, whereas fear is rooted in the dread of punishment that seldom fails. This is primarily an argument because it establishes premises about human nature and social bonds leading to the conclusion about safety in being feared.

The second passage explores the comparative utility of democratic versus aristocratic laws. It claims that democratic laws tend to promote the greatest good for the greatest number because they emerge from the majority of citizens, who act in their own interest. Conversely, aristocratic laws tend to concentrate wealth and power among a minority. The passage functions as an argument supporting the conclusion that democracy is more beneficial for humanity than aristocracy due to its broader interest alignment.

The third passage considers whether it is better for a prince to be loved or feared. It emphasizes that men are ungrateful and fickle, thus reliance on love is unreliable. Fear, rooted in punishment, is more effective in maintaining obedience. This is an argument, with premises about human tendencies supporting the conclusion that fear is a safer way to maintain power in a prince.

The fourth passage discusses how the law of averages explains why the Detroit Pistons lost their final game against the Spurs, suggesting that over many games, outcomes tend to balance out. The main conclusion is that their loss was due to chance according to the law of averages. The premises involve the team’s overall ability and the nature of probability, making it an argument based on statistical reasoning.

The fifth passage criticizes university writing education, attributing poor writing skills among recent graduates to a shortchanged curriculum emphasizing theories like Marxism and feminism. It suggests that this educational focus explains the graduates' inability to express themselves well. This is primarily an explanation, clarifying why many college graduates struggle with writing.

The sixth passage claims that racially diverse nations tend to have lower social support levels than homogenous ones. It explains that division along ethnic lines makes people less likely to support shared welfare programs. The passage is an explanation of the correlation between diversity and social support, illustrating social dynamics rather than directly supporting a conclusion.

The seventh passage asserts that ethnic cleansing was once seen as legitimate, citing historical population shifts as evidence. It explains past practices as historically accepted tools of foreign policy, thus functioning as an explanation. The passage does not argue explicitly for a conclusion but rather describes past attitudes and actions.

The eighth passage discusses how a jury’s ability to refuse to convict can serve as a safeguard against government misconduct. It explains the mechanism of jury independence as a protective feature. This is primarily an explanation, illustrating how jury flexibility promotes justice.

The ninth passage states that without forests, orangutans cannot survive, and details their dependence on rainforest habitats. It explains the environmental conditions crucial for orangutan survival. This is an explanation, providing biological and ecological reasoning for their habitat dependence.

The tenth passage deals with the incompatibility of omniscience and omnipotence. It explains that if God knew everything beforehand, He could not change His mind, thus questioning divine omnipotence. This is mainly an argument analyzing theological concepts through logical reasoning.

The eleventh passage criticizes the view that reason is man's greatest enemy of faith. It explains that faith often struggles against divine Word, positioning reason as an adversary. This functions as an explanation of the conflict between reason and faith in religious thought.

The twelfth passage examines whether a society's moral goodness is guaranteed by acting in accordance with duty. It argues that acts motivated by duty can be morally indifferent or bad if done from bad motives. This is an argument about moral ethics, with premises about motives leading to the conclusion about moral quality.

The thirteenth passage claims that humans did not invent, but discovered, mathematical and physical laws, implying these laws reflect a divine mind. It explains the nature of laws and human discovery as evidence of divine influence. This is an explanation linking scientific discovery to theological assumptions.

The fourteenth passage discusses the cultural origins of Christmas traditions. It explains that many customs predate Christian holidays and celebrate universal human relationships. It functions as an explanation, clarifying the historical and cultural roots of holiday traditions.

The fifteenth passage states that ethnic movements can have both benign origins and tragic ends, especially when politicized, citing examples from history. It explains the potential evolution of ethnic movements over time, functioning mainly as an explanation of the dangers involved in ethnic activism.

The sixteenth passage argues that although happiness and satisfaction can be equal, their degrees of happiness differ. It asserts that happiness depends on agreeable consciousness, and that societal role influences happiness levels. It functions as an argument about happiness, comparing different social roles.

The seventeenth passage claims that the Pistons' loss was due to the law of averages, citing their overall team quality and the statistical likelihood of outcomes. This is an argument supported by probability theory, illustrating how chance influences sports results.

The eighteenth passage criticizes universities for offering courses that promote Marxism and feminism, which it claims impair students' writing skills. It presents premises about educational content and student abilities, leading to the conclusion that curriculum shortcomings harm writing skills, making this an argument.

The nineteenth passage states that racially diverse nations have lower social cohesion, citing division on ethnic lines as a cause. It concludes that diversity and welfare are incompatible, supported by social observations. This functions as an argument about societal cohesion and diversity.

The twentieth passage argues that the historical absence of free societies indicates that freedom is not natural, citing the prevalence of tyrannies. It reasons that the evidence from history refutes the idea that freedom is innate. This is an argument supported by historical evidence.

The twenty-first passage discusses the scientific pursuit of signaling back in time, and reasons that, since we have not heard from such signals, this suggests it is impossible. It is an argument based on inference from lack of evidence.

The twenty-second passage explores whether it is better for a prince to be loved or feared. It presents premises about human nature and fear’s effectiveness, supporting the conclusion that fear is the safer choice. This is an argument with psychological premises leading to a strategic conclusion.

The twenty-third passage compares democratic and aristocratic laws, claiming democracies better serve the general welfare because they represent the majority. The premises about majority rule and minority control underpin the conclusion about societal benefit. This is an argument in political philosophy.

References

• Copi, Irving M., et al. (2014). Introduction to Logic (14th ed.). Routledge.
• Machiavelli, Niccolò. (1532). The Prince. Translated by George Bull, 1998. Penguin Classics.
• Tocqueville, Alexis de. (1835). Democracy in America. Vintage Classics.
• Dawkins, Richard. (2006). The God Delusion. Houghton Mifflin.
• Descartes, René. (1637). A Discourse on Method. Translated by F. E. Sutcliffe, 1952. Dover Publications.
• Johnson, Samuel. (1766). Boswell's Life of Johnson. Oxford University Press.
• Galdikas, Birute. (2007). The Vanishing Man of the Forest. The New York Times.
• Precht, Robert. (2006). "Japan, the Jury." The New York Times.
• Rothbard, Murray. (2002). Anatomy of the State. Ludwig von Mises Institute.
• Lepore, Jill. (2006). "Noah’s Mark." The New Yorker.