References: Specker, B. (2004). Nutrition Influences Bone De

References Specker, B. (2004). Nutrition Influences Bone Development Fr

References Specker, B. (2004). Nutrition influences bone development from infancy through toddler Years1. The Journal of Nutrition, 134 (3), 691S-695S. Retrieved from Nutrition Influences Bone Development from Infancy through Toddler Years1 Specker, Bonny . The Journal of Nutrition ; Bethesda Vol. 134, Iss. 3, (Mar 2004): 691S-695S. ProQuest document link ABSTRACT During the last decade a greater appreciation has developed for determining factors that influence bone accretion in healthy children. Nutritional factors that may contribute to bone accretion in infants and toddlers include maternal nutritional status during pregnancy, type of infant feeding, calcium and phosphorus content of infant formula, introduction of weaning foods, and diet during the toddler and preschool years. Maternal vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy is associated with disturbances in neonatal calcium homeostasis, and maternal calcium deficiency leads to reduced neonatal bone mineral content (BMC). Preterm infants are at increased risk of osteopenia, and, although the use of high mineral formula has reduced the risk of osteopenia in these infants, it has not eliminated it. The reason for the long-term bone deficiency among preterm infants is not clear, although lower physical activity levels have been suggested as a potential cause. Studies find that human milk-fed infants have lower bone accretion than do formula-fed infants; that the greater the mineral content of formula, the greater the bone accretion; and that the inclusion of palm olein oil in infant formula may reduce bone mineral accretion. Bone accretion is not influenced by the timing of the introduction of weaning foods, despite higher serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) concentrations among infants who receive solids earlier. There is evidence of calcium intake-by-gene and calcium intake-by-physical activity interactions among toddlers and young children. The long-term effects of these early nutritional influences on later bone health are unknown. J. Nutr. 134: 691S-695S, 2004. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT] KEY WORDS: bone children Infants diet * nutrition DETAILS Subject: Bones; Children &youth Diet; Nutrition MeSH: Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Infant, Infant Food, Infant, Newborn, Milk, Human, Nutritional Status, Pregnancy -- physiology, Bone Development -- physiology (major), Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena (major), Nutritional Physiological Phenomena (major) Publication title: The Journal of Nutrition; Bethesda Volume: 134 Issue: 3 Number of pages: 5 PDF GENERATED BY SEARCH.PROQUEST.COM Page 1 of 2 Terms and Conditions Contact ProQuest Publication year: 2004 Publication date: Mar 2004 Section: Nutritional Influences on Bone Growth in Children Publisher: American Institute of Nutrition Place of publication: Bethesda Country of publication: United States, Bethesda Publication subject: Nutrition And Dietetics ISSN: CODEN: JONUAI Source type: Scholarly Journals Language of publication: English Document type: Comparative Study Document feature: Graphs References Accession number: ProQuest document ID: Document URL: Last updated: Database: STEM Database,Research Library PDF GENERATED BY SEARCH.PROQUEST.COM Page 2 of 2 Nutrition Influences Bone Development from Infancy through Toddler Years1

Paper For Above instruction

Introduction

Bone development during early childhood is a complex process influenced by a variety of nutritional, genetic, and environmental factors. Adequate bone mineralization during infancy and toddler years is crucial for establishing peak bone mass, which impacts skeletal health throughout life. Specker (2004) emphasizes the significant role nutrition plays in this developmental stage, highlighting maternal nutritional status, infant feeding practices, and diet composition as key determinants. This paper explores the various nutritional influences on bone development from infancy through toddlerhood, critically analyzing the latest research findings and their implications for health interventions.

Nutritional Factors and Bone Accretion

The role of maternal nutrition during pregnancy is foundational for neonatal bone health. Maternal vitamin D deficiency, for instance, is associated with disturbances in neonatal calcium homeostasis, leading to compromised bone mineral content (BMC) (Specker, 2004). Maternal calcium intake also influences neonatal calcium levels, with deficiencies resulting in lower BMC in newborns. Consequently, ensuring adequate maternal intake of calcium and vitamin D during pregnancy is vital to support fetal bone development. Postnatally, infant feeding practices significantly impact bone accretion. Studies have demonstrated that formula-fed infants tend to have higher bone mineral accretion compared to those fed on human milk, likely due to the higher mineral content in formulas (Specker, 2004). The inclusion of specific oils, such as palm olein, in infant formula has also been associated with reduced bone mineralization, indicating the importance of composition in formula design.

Introduction of Weaning Foods and Dietary Patterns

The timing of introducing solid foods, or weaning, does not seem to significantly affect bone accretion, despite increased serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels among infants who receive solids earlier (Specker, 2004). This suggests that other factors, such as overall diet quality and mineral intake, may play more critical roles. During the toddler and preschool years, dietary patterns rich in calcium and phosphorus are associated with continued bone growth and mineralization. It is noteworthy that individual genetic factors and physical activity levels interact with calcium intake, influencing bone health outcomes (Specker, 2004). However, long-term effects of early nutrition on adult bone health remain to be fully elucidated, emphasizing the need for longitudinal studies.

Preterm Infants and Bone Health

Preterm infants are at heightened risk for osteopenia, a condition characterized by reduced bone mass. Although high mineral formula supplementation has improved outcomes, it has not fully prevented long-term deficits. This persistent deficiency may stem from lower physical activity levels post-hospitalization or other unidentified factors (Specker, 2004). Addressing these deficits requires a multifaceted approach considering both nutrient provision and environmental stimulation to optimize bone health in this vulnerable group.

Implications for Public Health and Future Research

The findings by Specker (2004) underline the importance of maternal nutrition, infant feeding practices, and early dietary patterns in establishing healthy bones. Public health initiatives should focus on improving maternal micronutrient status during pregnancy, advocating for breastfeeding while ensuring adequate mineral content in formula, and promoting diets rich in calcium and phosphorus during early childhood. Furthermore, future research should aim to clarify the long-term impacts of early nutritional interventions and explore gene-nutrition and physical activity interactions to tailor personalized strategies for optimal bone health across the lifespan.

Conclusion

In conclusion, nutrition significantly influences bone development from infancy through toddlerhood. Maternal nutritional status, infant feeding practices, and early dietary patterns all contribute to bone mineralization, with long-lasting implications. Addressing nutritional deficiencies and promoting optimal feeding strategies are essential for preventing conditions like osteopenia and osteoporosis later in life. Continued research and policy initiatives should emphasize a holistic approach that integrates nutrition, physical activity, and genetic considerations to promote lifelong skeletal health.

References

• Specker, B. (2004). Nutrition influences bone development from infancy through toddler years. The Journal of Nutrition, 134(3), 691S–695S.
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