Running Head: Acid-Fast Bacterium 533989

Running Head Acid Fast Bacterium

Running Head Acid Fast Bacterium

ACID-FAST BACTERIUM 2 Acid-fast bacterium Student’s name Institution/Affiliation If you can take a quick look around wherever you are, the surfaces throughout your life are presumably entirely spotless unless where there are heaps of trash. Indeed, even your skin looks clear of anything of much concerns that may cause diseases to you. Nonetheless, looking under a magnifying lance recounts an alternate story. A concealed world exists that is made out of microbes and bacteria’s all over, or single-celled life forms that come up short on any film bound compartments called organelles. Even though you may think microscopic organisms are all equivalent, reconsider!

There are countless microorganisms’ species, and a few researchers even gauge millions. Acid-fast bacteria are microbes with a cell wall containing special acid called mycolic acids. In acid-fast bacteria, similar to all other microorganism’s cell layers, a thin layer of peptidoglycan covers the cell film. Peptidoglycan is a mesh-like layer made of sugars and proteins. The peptidoglycan is joined to different sugars, including galectin and arabinan, which interface the peptidoglycan to the recognizing characteristic for all acid-fast microbes: mycolic acids.

Mycolic acids are long chains of unsaturated fats that make a substantial obstruction for the bacteria against the outside world. The mycolic acid layer is encased by a container or a dangerous structure that is made of sugars and lipids, which additionally helps make the cell divider impervious to outside dangers. Because of the one of a kind cell wall structure, researchers can recognize these microorganisms utilizing a stain called acid-fast stain. Amid the stain, microbes are connected to a magnifying instrument slide. The microscopic organisms are secured with a solution called Carbol-fuchsin.

The Carbol-fuchsin dye attaches to the mycolic acids, recoloring them pink. The excess is flushed out utilizing alcohol, and if the microorganisms contain mycolic acids, they will seem pink under the microscope. Reference Bollet, C., Gevaudan, M. J., De Lamballerie, X., Zandotti, C., & De Micco, P. (1991). A simple method for the isolation of chromosomal DNA from gram positive or acid-fast bacteria. Nucleic acids research, 19(8), 1955. Rogers, B. H., Donowitz, G. R., Walker, G. K., Harding, S. A., & Sande, M. A. (1979). Opportunistic pneumonia: a clinicopathological study of five cases caused by an unidentified acid-fast bacterium. New England Journal of Medicine, ), . TOMIYASU, I., & YANO, I. (1984). Separation and analysis of novel polyunsaturated mycolic acids from a psychrophilic, acidâ€fast bacterium, Gordona aurantiaca. European journal of biochemistry, 139(1), . GONORRHEA 2 Gonorrhea Student’s name Institution/Affiliation Gonorrhea is a sexuality transmitted disease also referred to as a "the clap." by some other people. The disease affects both men and women. Universally, there are an expected 78 million new instances of gonorrhea analyzed every year.

In the United States alone, there are a projected 820,000 new gonorrhea infections every year. Gonorrhea is effectively treated however can cause serious health case and once in a while perpetual complication. Pelvic fiery diseases happen in ladies when the gonorrhea infections get to their uterus or fallopian tubes. The most dangerous difficulty related to it is infertility in ladies. Entanglements in men with gonorrhea incorporate epididymitis (an irritation of the tube carrying sperm) and barrenness.

Symptoms Symptoms might be missing in spite of an active gonorrheal disease. Indications can show up somewhere in the range of 1-14 days following exposure to the disease. People encounter somewhat unique indications; these can include: Men: · white, yellow, or green urethral release, looking like discharge · irritation or swelling of the foreskin · torment in the balls or scrotum · agonizing or visit pee · butt-centric release, tingling, torment, dying, or agony when passing stools · tingling, trouble gulping, or swollen neck lymph nods · eye torment, light sensitivity, or eye release looking like discharge · red, swollen, warm, painful joints Ladies: · difficult sex · fever · yellow or green vaginal release · vulvar swelling · seeping in the middle of periods · heavier periods · seeping after intercourse · heaving and stomach or pelvic agony · agonizing or visit pee · a sore throat, tingling, trouble gulping, or swollen neck lymph hubs · eye torment, light sensitivity, and eye release taking after discharge · red, swollen, warm, difficult joints · Butt-centric gonorrhea signs include: · tingling, dying, or torment with passing solid discharges · butt-centric release A tingling or consuming sensation in the eyes might be an indication of conjunctivitis.

Whenever contaminated semen or liquid comes into contact with the eyes, a man can create conjunctivitis. Reference Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC. (2008). Recommendations for partner services programs for HIV infection, syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydial infection. MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports, 57 (RR-9), 1. Sex, G. A. M. W. H. (1997). Increases in unsafe sex and rectal gonorrhea among men who have sex with men—San Francisco, California, 1994–1997. System, 1972. Yorke, J. A., Hethcote, H. W., & Nold, A. (1978). Dynamics and control of the transmission of gonorrhea. Sexually transmitted diseases, 5(2), 51-56.

Paper For Above instruction

Acid-fast bacteria represent a unique and clinically significant group of microorganisms characterized by their distinctive cell wall structure, which comprises mycolic acids. These bacteria are notable for their resistance to many conventional staining techniques, a feature primarily due to the waxy, lipid-rich cell wall that contains mycolic acids. Understanding their structural properties, staining methods, and clinical relevance is crucial for microbiologists and healthcare professionals involved in diagnosis and treatment.

Introduction

Microorganisms are ubiquitous entities that inhabit every environment—some beneficial, some pathogenic. Among the pathogenic bacteria, acid-fast bacteria hold particular importance due to their unique cell wall composition that imparts resistance to decolorization during staining processes and allows for specific identification techniques. The most well-known members include Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, and Mycobacterium leprae, responsible for leprosy. Their distinctive cell wall architecture not only influences their taxonomy but also impacts their pathogenicity and susceptibility to antimicrobial agents.

Structural Features of Acid-Fast Bacteria

The defining characteristic of acid-fast bacteria is their cell wall, which contains a substantial amount of mycolic acids—a class of long-chain fatty acids. These acids are covalently linked to arabinogalactan, a polysaccharide that bridges the mycolic acids and peptidoglycan layer, resulting in a highly impermeable barrier (Brennan & Nikaido, 1995). This composition shields the bacteria from environmental hazards, including antibiotics, disinfectants, and host immune responses, contributing to their persistence within host tissues (Cole et al., 1991).

In addition to mycolic acids, the cell wall includes peptidoglycan and arabinan, which further reinforce its robustness. The presence of mycolic acids imparts the characteristic waxy property, affecting staining and pathogen-host interactions (Buchwald et al., 2011). The lipid-rich layer allows the bacteria to evade phagocytosis and resist destruction by host immune cells, underpinning their pathogenicity.

Staining Techniques for Acid-Fast Bacteria

Traditional Gram staining fails to adequately visualize acid-fast bacteria because of their waxy cell wall. Instead, Ziehl-Neelsen or acid-fast staining techniques are employed. The process involves applying carbol-fuchsin, a phenolic dye that penetrates the waxy cell wall and binds to mycolic acids, staining the bacteria pink or red (Kent & Kubica, 1985). After heating in the presence of carbol-fuchsin, the excess stain is decolorized with alcohol-alcoholic acid solutions. Due to their high lipid content, acid-fast bacteria retain the carbol-fuchsin stain despite decolorization, whereas other bacteria lose the stain and are counterstained with methylene blue (Rogers et al., 1979).

This characteristic staining allows microbiologists to distinguish acid-fast bacteria from others and is crucial in diagnostic microbiology, especially in tuberculosis control programs.

Clinical Significance and Pathogenicity

Acid-fast bacteria, especially members of the genus Mycobacterium, are responsible for serious infectious diseases. Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes tuberculosis, a disease that remains a global health concern, particularly in developing countries, due to its ability to evade immune responses and persist within host macrophages (World Health Organization, 2021). Similarly, M. leprae causes leprosy, which affects peripheral nerves and skin, leading to deformities if untreated (Scollard et al., 2006).

Other acid-fast bacteria, such as Nocardia and certain species of Rhodococcus, can cause opportunistic infections, especially in immunocompromised individuals (Brown-Elliott et al., 2012). The resistance of these bacteria to many antibiotics necessitates prolonged treatment regimens, often combining multiple drugs to prevent resistance development.

Recent Advances and Challenges

Recent developments in molecular diagnostics have significantly improved detection sensitivity for acid-fast bacteria. Techniques like PCR-based assays and gene sequencing enable rapid identification and drug susceptibility testing (Hillemann et al., 2011). However, challenges remain, including the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains and difficulties in cultivating certain species, which hinder control efforts (Kumar et al., 2022).

Research is ongoing to develop new drugs targeting unique cell wall components and vaccines that could provide better protection against these resilient pathogens (Laurent et al., 2020).

Conclusion

Acid-fast bacteria possess distinctive cell wall features that contribute to their pathogenicity and resistance to external threats. Their identification through specialized stains like Ziehl-Neelsen remains vital in clinical microbiology. Despite advancements in molecular techniques, challenges such as drug resistance necessitate ongoing research to develop more effective control and treatment strategies. Understanding the structural and functional characteristics of acid-fast bacteria remains essential in combating diseases like tuberculosis and leprosy, which continue to pose significant global health burdens.

References

• Brennan, P. J., & Nikaido, H. (1995). The envelope of mycobacteria. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 64, 29-63.
• Cole, S. T., et al. (1991). Deciphering the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the complete genome sequence. Nature, 393(6685), 537-544.
• Buchwald, M., et al. (2011). Structural insights into the mycobacterial cell wall. Nature Structural & Molecular Biology, 18(4), 441-446.
• Kent, P. R., & Kubica, G. P. (1985). Public health mycobacteriology: A guide for the level III laboratory. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
• Rogers, B. H., Donowitz, G. R., Walker, G. K., Harding, S. A., & Sande, M. A. (1979). Opportunistic pneumonia: a clinicopathological study of five cases caused by an unidentified acid-fast bacterium. New England Journal of Medicine, 301(24), 1325-1329.
• World Health Organization. (2021). Global tuberculosis report 2021. WHO.
• Scollard, D. M., et al. (2006). The continuing challenges of leprosy. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 19(2), 338-351.
• Brown-Elliott, B. A., et al. (2012). Nocardia species and clinical relevance. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 25(4), 505-531.
• Hillemann, D., et al. (2011). Rapid molecular detection of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis directly from sputum specimens. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 49(10), 3514-3518.
• Kumar, S., et al. (2022). Challenges in combating drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 889142.