Second Language Acquisition In Adults: From Research To Prac

Second Language Acquisition in Adults: From Research to Practice

Second language acquisition (SLA) is the study of how second languages are learned and the factors that influence the process. SLA researchers examine how communicative competence—the ability to interpret the underlying meaning of a message, understand cultural references, use strategies to keep communication from breaking down, and apply the rules of grammar—develops in a second language (Savignon, 1997).

They also study nonlinguistic influences on SLA such as age, anxiety, and motivation (See Ellis, 1997; Gass & Selinker, 2001; & Pica, 2002 for extensive discussions of SLA theory and research). Little research has been conducted on SLA with English language learners in adult education contexts. The complexities of adult ESL instruction make research in this field challenging. Investigating issues of culture, language, and education and tracking learner progress over time are not easy when complicated by diverse and mobile learner populations and varied learning contexts (e.g., workplace classes, general ESL classes, family literacy classes). However, knowing about the SLA research that has been conducted can be helpful to adult ESL teachers because the findings may be applicable to their populations and contexts.

The purpose of this review is to explore how SLA research can inform adult ESL instruction. Three key areas of SLA research are discussed: (1) the effect of learner motivation, (2) the role of interaction, and (3) the role of vocabulary. The research includes experimental, correlational, and descriptive studies, as well as theoretical analyses of other research. Understanding these areas helps educators tailor their teaching strategies to improve second language learning in adults.

Effects of Learner Motivation in Second Language Acquisition

Motivation is a central focus in SLA research for many years. Dornyei (2002a, p. 8) defines motivation as "why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity [and] how hard they are going to pursue it." According to Gardner (1985; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003), factors that influence SLA include integrative motivation—desiring to learn a language to identify with its speakers—which promotes SLA regardless of age or whether the language is learned as second or foreign language. Instrumental motivation—learning a language to meet practical needs, such as securing a job—also plays a significant role (Oxford & Shearin, 1994).

Research supports the notion that teachers should respond to learners' needs and goals when planning instruction. Strategies such as helping learners set short-term goals, providing self-assessment checklists, weekly progress trackers, and self-reflection tools encourage autonomy and motivate learners (Marshall, 2002). Furthermore, instructional context influences motivation; varied and challenging activities help maintain engagement (Dornyei & Csizer, 1998). Group cohesion and social interactions foster positive attitudes and effort, highlighting the importance of creating a supportive classroom environment where learners can share experiences and build community (Florez & Burt, 2001).

Continuing motivation outside the classroom is crucial. Project-based learning encourages learners to apply language skills in real-life situations, promoting ongoing engagement and confidence (Moss & Van Duzer, 1998). Current research explores classroom strategies that sustain motivation and empower learners to manage factors such as self-confidence, shifting goals, or distractions, emphasizing the need for adaptable and learner-centered approaches (Dornyei, 2003; Noels, Clement, & Pelletier, 2003).

The Role of Interaction in Second Language Acquisition

Interaction between individuals is fundamental in SLA. Ellis (1999) describes interaction as communication where meaning is negotiated to prevent breakdowns, fostering opportunities for comprehensible input and feedback (Gass, 1997; Long, 1996). This process allows learners to notice differences between their current language use and target-like forms—referred to as "noticing"—which is critical for language development (Schmidt & Frota, 1986).

Research indicates that engaging in conversational interactions accelerates language learning. Mackey (1999) demonstrated that classroom interaction enhances question formation skills, supporting the Interactive Hypothesis that conversation connects input, learner attention, and output in meaningful ways (Long, 1996). Tasks that mimic authentic communication, including task-based language teaching, promote longer speech, more negotiation of meaning, and contextualized language use (Bygate, 2000; Doughty & Pica, 1986).

Task-based language learning emphasizes exchange of meaningful information rather than mastery of form alone. Tasks such as problem-solving and information gap activities foster real-life communication. Teachers should consider learners' proficiency, lesson objectives, feedback mechanisms, and logistical constraints when designing tasks to maximize engagement and language output (McKay & Tom, 1999; Van Duzer & Burt, 1999).

Focus on Form in Language Instruction

Focus-on-form approaches integrate grammatical instruction within meaningful activities, drawing learners’ attention to language features when they encounter difficulties (Long, 2000). Research suggests that combining forms with meaning improves accuracy and incorporates new structures into learners’ language use (Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2001). Teachers need to tailor focus-on-form strategies based on learners' needs, providing targeted practice that aligns with their developmental levels (Doughty & Williams, 1998).

Vocabulary Development and Its Significance in SLA

Vocabulary knowledge is essential for communicative competence and involves understanding pronunciation, spelling, multiple meanings, syntactic properties, and collocations (Coady & Huckin, 1997; Qian, 1999). Learners need to acquire approximately 3,000 word families to derive meaning from context effectively (Laufer, 1997). Teachers can facilitate vocabulary growth through activities such as semantic mapping—identifying related words and concepts—as well as extensive reading and active engagement with new words (DeCarrico, 2001; Burt, Peyton, & Adams, 2003).

Incidental vocabulary learning occurs when learners pick up words inadvertently during unrelated tasks, emphasizing the importance of context and meaningful practice (Gass, 1999). Reading comprehension tasks, combined with vocabulary instruction, enhance word retention and understanding, especially when learners are encouraged to use dictionaries and keep vocabulary journals (Paribakht & Wesche, 1997; Wesche & Paribakht, 2000). Repeated exposure and active negotiation of meaning are vital for vocabulary acquisition (de la Fuente, 2002; Ellis & He, 1999).

Conclusion

Insights from SLA research affirm many practices used in adult ESL instruction. Creating opportunities for interaction, designing tasks that promote authentic communication, and teaching grammatical forms and vocabulary within meaningful contexts enhance language learning. Adoption of learner-centered and motivated-driven approaches, supported by ongoing research, can improve outcomes for adult language learners. Implementing these strategies in the classroom aligns with empirical evidence, promoting effective and engaging second language acquisition experiences (Gass & Selinker, 2001; Long, 1996; Norris & Ortega, 2001; Savignon, 1997; Doughty & Williams, 1998).

References

• Bygate, M. (2000). Tasks and task-based learning. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.), Researching Pedagogic Tasks (pp. 37–50). Longman.
• Coady, J., & Huckin, T. (1997). Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
• Doughty, C., & Pica, T. (1986). Teaching and Learning Grammar in Communicative Contexts. In R. K. Johnson (Ed.), The Second Language Classroom (pp. 164-182). Cambridge University Press.
• Ellis, R. (1997). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.
• Ellis, R. (1999). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.
• Gass, S. M. (1999). Incidental Vocabulary Learning in the L2 Classroom. Language Learning, 49(2), 297–328.
• Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (2001). Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Long, M. H. (1996). The Role of the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 413–468). Academic Press.
• Marshall, S. (2002). Self-Assessment and Motivation in Adult Language Learners. TESOL Quarterly, 36(1), 103–122.
• Moss, D., & Van Duzer, C. (1998). Teaching for Effective Student Self-Assessment. Studies in Self-Assessment for ESL/EFL.