Smithwealth Of Nations Book V Part 3: The Expenses Of Public

Smithwealth Of Nationsbook V Part 3 The Expenses Of Public Works An

Smith—Wealth of Nations—Book V Part 3: The Expenses of Public Works and Public Institutions THE EDUCATION OF THE LABOURING POOR· In the progress of the division of labour, the employment of most of those who live by labour comes to be confined to a few very simple operations, often only one or two. Now, the understandings of most men are formed by their ordinary employments. The man whose whole life is spent in performing a few simple operations—with effects that are always nearly the same—has no occasion to exert his understanding or to exercise his invention in devising ways to remove difficulties that never occur. So he naturally loses the habit of such exertion, and generally becomes as stupid and ignorant as a human creature can possibly become.

The torpor of his mind makes him incapable of enjoying or taking part in any rational conversation, conceiving any generous, noble, or tender sentiment,or, therefore, forming any just judgment concerning many even of the ordinary duties of private life. Of the great and extensive interests of his country he is altogether incapable of judging; and unless particular trouble has been taken to make him otherwise he is equally incapable of defending his country in war. The uniformity of his stationary life naturally corrupts the courage of his mind, and makes him regard with abhorrence the irregular, uncertain, and adventurous life of a soldier. It corrupts even the activity of his body, and makes him incapable of exerting his strength with vigour and perseverance in any employment except the one to which he has been bred.

Thus, his dexterity at his own particular trade seems to be acquired at the expense of his intellectual, social, and martial virtues. But in every improved and civilised society this is the state into which the labouring poor—i.e. the great body of the people—must necessarily fall unless government works to prevent it. It is otherwise in societies of hunters, of shepherds, and even of husbandmen in the rude state of husbandry before the improvement of manufactures and the extension of foreign commerce. In such societies, each man’s varied occupations oblige him to exert his capacity and to invent ways of solving problems that continually occur. Invention is kept alive, and the mind is not allowed to fall into the drowsy stupidity that seems to benumb the understanding of most of the lower ranks of people in a civilised society.

In those ‘barbarous’ societies every man is a warrior; everyman is also in some measure a statesman, and can form a tolerable judgment concerning the interests of his society and the conduct of those who govern it; so almost every man can see well enough how far their chiefs are good judges in peace or good leaders in war. No man in such a society can acquire the improved and refined understanding that afew men sometimes have in a more civilised state. . . . Everyman has a considerable degree of knowledge, ingenuity, and invention but hardly any man has a great degree of these qualities. Still, the degree that is commonly possessed is generally sufficient for conducting the whole simple business of the society.

In a civilised state, on the other hand, though there is little variety in the occupations of most individuals there is an almost infinite variety in those of the whole society. These varied occupations present an almost infinite variety of topics of contemplation for those few who, having no particular occupation of their own, have leisure and inclination to examine the occupations of other people. Such contemplation exercises their minds in endless comparisons and combinations, and makes their understandings extraordinarily acute and comprehensive. But unless those few happen to be placed in some very particular situations, their great abilities—though honourable to themselves—may contribute little to the good government or happiness of their society.

Despite the great abilities of those few, all the nobler parts of the human character may be to a large extent obliterated and extinguished in the great body of the people. In a civilised and commercial society the education of the common people may require more public attention than the education of people of some rank and fortune. I base this on three facts about people of some rank and fortune. (i)They are generally about 19 years of age before they enter on the particular business, profession, or trade by which they propose to distinguish themselves in the world. By then they have had plenty of time to acquire, or at least to fit themselves to acquire, every accomplishment that can recommend them to the public esteem or make them worthy of it; and their parents or guardians are generally anxious enough for this to happen to be willing enough to lay out the expense necessary for it.

If they are not always properly educated, it is seldom from lack of expense laid out on their education but from the improper application of that expense. It is seldom from the lack of masters but from the negligence and incapacity of the masters who can be had and the impossibility (in the present state of things) of finding any better. (ii)The employments in which they spend most of their lives are not simple and uniform as those of the common people are. They are almost all extremely complicated, and such as exercise the head more than the hands. The understandings of those who are engaged in such employments can seldom grow slack through lack of exercise. (iii)Their employments are seldom such as harass them from morning to night. They generally have a good deal of spare time during which they can perfect themselves in every branch of useful or ornamental knowledge that attracts them. It is otherwise with the common people. (i)Their parents can barely afford to maintain them, even in infancy. As soon as they are able to work they must follow some trade by which they can earn their subsistence. (ii)That trade is generally so simple and uniform that it gives little exercise to the understanding. (iii)Their labour is so constant and so severe that it leaves them little time and less inclination to think about anything else. But. . . the most essential parts of education—to read, write, and account—can be acquired so early in life that even those who are to be bred to the lowest occupations have time to acquire them before they can be employed in those occupations.

For a very small expense the public can facilitate, encourage and even impose on almost the whole body of the people the necessity of acquiring those most essential parts of education. The public can facilitate this acquisition by establishing in every parish or district a little school where children can be taught for a reward so moderate that even a common labourer can afford it. The master may be partly paid by the public (but not wholly or even principally paid by it, because then he would soon learn to neglect his business). [This is done in Scotland, Smith reports, and to a lesser extent in England.] If in those little schools the books used in teaching children to read were a little more instructive than they commonly are; and if, instead of a smattering of Latin that the children of the common people are sometimes taught there, uselessly, they were instructed in the elementary parts of geometry and mechanics; the literary education [Smith’s phrase] of this rank of people would perhaps be as complete as it can be.

There is hardly any common trade that does not provide some opportunities for applying the principles of geometry and mechanics, and that would not therefore gradually exercise and improve the common people in those principles, which are the necessary introduction to the most abstract as well as to the most useful sciences. The public can encourage the acquisition of those most essential parts of education by giving small premiums and little badges of distinction to the children of the common people who excel in them. The public can impose on almost the whole body of the people the necessity of acquiring the most essential parts of education by obliging every man to undergo an examination in them before he can obtain the freedom in any corporation or be allowed to set up any trade in a village or town corporate. [Smith writes about how ancient Greece and Rome dealt with education, especially military education.

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Adam Smith's insights into the education of the laboring poor underscore the importance of systematic public involvement in fostering intellectual development among the lower classes. His critique of the division of labor highlights how repetitive work diminishes the capacity for creativity and rational thought, leading to intellectual stagnation and moral degradation. In contrast, Smith advocates for an educational framework that emphasizes basic literacy, numeracy, and practical knowledge—particularly geometry and mechanics—that can be achieved with minimal expense and widespread public support.

According to Smith, in pre-civilized societies like those of hunters, shepherds, and early farmers, the diversity of roles necessitated continuous problem-solving and invention, maintaining a lively and capable populace. These societies benefited from a form of collective intelligence, where every individual played multiple roles, contributing to societal resilience and ingenuity. Such societal structures inherently fostered a broader development of human virtues, including martial and social skills, which are essential for the cohesion and defense of communities.

In contrast, Smith notes that in modern, highly civilized societies, occupational specialization leads to the fragmentation of skills and intellectual capacities. Most individuals perform narrow, repetitive tasks that do not stimulate their faculties, resulting in a populace that is intellectually impoverished and morally dull. Smith emphasizes that this intellectual stagnation necessitates deliberate public measures to promote education, especially among the lower classes, who otherwise would lack the opportunity or motivation to acquire essential skills and knowledge.

He proposes establishing small, inexpensive schools within every district, with government support for teachers and instructional materials. By focusing on elementary education in reading, writing, arithmetic, and practical sciences like geometry and mechanics, these schools can produce a more informed and competent populace. Smith also suggests that public incentives—such as medals or premiums for excellent performance—could motivate children to excel and encourage social recognition of intellectual achievement.

Furthermore, Smith advocates for educational requirements as a prerequisite for conducting trades and joining civic institutions, thereby ensuring that basic literacy and practical knowledge are widespread. Such measures, he argues, would foster a sense of civic responsibility, reduce ignorance and superstitions, and promote social harmony. Importantly, Smith emphasizes that the primary motivation for these educational reforms should be the long-term benefits to societal stability, national defense, and individual well-being, rather than immediate economic gains alone.

Additionally, Smith reflects on the importance of martial preparedness, linking a well-instructed populace not only to national defense but also to the development of character virtues like bravery. He contends that moral and intellectual education are interconnected; a coward is a mutilated human in both body and mind, just as ignorance diminishes human dignity and societal health. For Smith, public education should thus aim to cultivate virtues that bolster both civic responsibility and individual character, reinforcing the social fabric of civil society.

In conclusion, Smith's vision advocates for comprehensive public engagement in education, aimed at elevating the moral, intellectual, and practical capacities of the lower classes. His ideas remain relevant today as societies continue to grapple with ensuring equitable access to quality education, emphasizing the need for public policy that supports lifelong learning and societal resilience. By fostering a well-educated populace, communities can promote social stability, economic prosperity, and national security—principles vital for the sustained progress of any civilization.

References

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