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Student Name Student Name Student name……………………………................................................. Soci 1301 Intro to Sociology, Fall 2020 Crime, Stratification/Poverty, Global Stratification , Race/Ethnicity, Second Exam (Open Book Exam) Answer only 20 questions you feel you can adequately answer. You must answer a minimum three answers from each chapter. Each correct answer is worth 5 pts. Submit all your answers in a singly document and upload this on Blackboard Exam 2 folder when you finish.

Answer only 20 questions you feel you can adequately answer. You must answer a minimum three answers from each chapter. Each correct answer is worth 5 pts. Submit all your answers in a single document and upload this on Blackboard Exam 2 folder when you finish.

Paper For Above instruction

Title: Understanding Social Deviance, Crime, and Stratification: A Sociological Perspective

The study of sociology encompasses various aspects of human society, including deviance, crime, social stratification, and global inequalities. This essay explores these topics by elucidating key concepts such as social deviance versus crime, functions of crime, sociological theories explaining criminal behavior, and the impact of social class and global stratification on individuals and societies.

Social Deviance and Crime

Social deviance refers to behaviors that violate societal norms but are not necessarily illegal at any governmental level, whereas crime involves acts that violate formal laws enacted by authorities. For example, wearing unconventional attire might be considered deviant in certain contexts but not criminal, while theft is an act classified as a crime at local, state, or federal levels. Thus, deviance is a broader concept encompassing behaviors that challenge social norms, whereas crime specifically involves violations of established laws.

Function of Crime According to Durkheim

Émile Durkheim argued that crime plays a vital role in reinforcing societal boundaries and norms by highlighting behaviors that are viewed as unacceptable. For example, when a society condemns acts of violence, it reaffirms its commitment to peace and order, thus maintaining social cohesion. Crime, therefore, functions to delineate acceptable behavior and promote social solidarity by reaffirming shared values.

Modes of Adaptation in Strain Theory

Robert K. Merton identified five modes of adaptation to societal goals and the means available to achieve them, including conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. For instance, an entrepreneur who starts a legitimate business exemplifies conformity by pursuing societal goals through accepted means. Conversely, an individual who resorts to illegal activities like drug dealing exemplifies innovation, seeking success outside approved channels. These adaptations reflect how individuals respond differently based on their access to legitimate means and societal expectations.

Sociological Perspectives on Crime

Conflict theory, as applied by sociologists like Karl Marx, views crime as a result of social inequality and the conflict between different social classes. For instance, laws may disproportionately favor the wealthy, leading to the criminalization of behaviors typical of lower classes, thereby perpetuating social inequality. This perspective emphasizes that crime is often rooted in systemic social disparities rather than individual moral failings.

Labeling Theory in Crime Explanation

Labeling theory posits that individuals become criminals when they are labeled as such by society. Sociologists like Howard Becker have shown that societal reactions to deviant behavior can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where labeled individuals internalize their deviant status and continue harmful behaviors. For example, a youth labeled as a troublemaker may experience social rejection, increasing the likelihood of continued delinquency.

Police Dislike Reasons According to Collins

Sociologist Randall Collins identified several reasons why police are often disliked, including their aggressive tactics, perceived racial profiling, and the discretionary power they hold. These practices can lead to community mistrust and perceptions of injustice, especially in marginalized populations. Additionally, police actions such as arrests or searches may be viewed as overreach, fueling negative perceptions.

Crime or Punishment Statistic

One notable statistic related to crime indicates that a significant proportion of arrests are for non-violent offenses, which suggests that the criminal justice system often targets behaviors associated with poverty or marginalization. This statistic reveals the systemic biases present within law enforcement and highlights the societal tendency to criminalize poverty rather than address underlying social issues.

Social Stratification and Social Class

Sociologists define social stratification as a structured ranking of individuals and groups based on various socioeconomic criteria, such as income, occupation, and education. Social class refers to these layers within society, which influence individuals' life chances and access to resources. These stratified layers create social inequalities that impact various aspects of life, including health, education, and employment opportunities.

Distinguishing Social Classes

The American class structure can be categorized into upper, middle, and lower classes, each characterized by different income levels, occupation types, and educational attainment. The upper class typically has incomes exceeding $200,000, owns significant assets, and holds executive or ownership roles usually requiring high education levels. The middle class includes professionals, managers, and small business owners with moderate income levels often supported by college education. The lower class comprises hourly workers, service employees, and unemployed individuals, often with less formal education and limited access to leisure because of financial constraints.

Marx’s Reserve Army of Labor

Marx described the reserve army of labor as surplus workers who are unemployed or underemployed, providing economic flexibility to capitalists by suppressing wages and controlling labor practices. In contemporary capitalism, this is evident in the gig economy, where gig workers or those in precarious employment serve as a reserve pool of labor, ready to be employed or laid off as market demands fluctuate.

Weber’s Class, Status, and Power

Max Weber distinguished class, status, and power as separate but interconnected social stratification dimensions. Class refers to economic resources; for example, a wealthy entrepreneur belongs to a higher economic class. Status pertains to social honor and prestige; an esteemed university professor exemplifies high status. Power relates to the ability to influence others and make decisions; a political leader wields significant power within society.

Veblen’s Leisure Class

Thorstein Veblen’s concept of the leisure class describes a social group that displays wealth and status through conspicuous consumption. This consumption is not driven solely by necessity but serves as a way to demonstrate social superiority. The leisure class engages in leisure activities that set them apart from lower classes, reinforcing social divisions and status distinctions.

Meritocracy and Blame for Poverty

A meritocratic explanation, often referred to as the bootstrap ideology, claims that individuals are responsible for their poverty or wealth based on their own efforts and abilities. For instance, some argue that poor individuals simply lack the motivation or initiative to succeed, suggesting that success is solely the result of individual effort and not structural factors such as social inequality or access to resources.

Davis and Moore Thesis

The Davis and Moore thesis posits that social stratification is functional because it ensures that the most qualified individuals fill the roles that are most important to society. They argue that stratification motivates individuals to acquire the necessary skills and education, thus maintaining social stability and efficiency. However, critics contend that this perspective justifies inequality and ignores systemic barriers that prevent equal opportunity.

Culture of Poverty Thesis

Oscar Lewis’s culture of poverty thesis suggests that poverty persists because poor individuals develop a unique value system and behavioral patterns that perpetuate their disadvantaged position. For example, a dependence on welfare may foster a sense of hopelessness and resignation, discouraging efforts to improve socioeconomic status. This perspective emphasizes internal cultural factors rather than structural barriers as primary cause of enduring poverty.

Blaming the Victims

William Ryan criticized society for its tendency to blame impoverished individuals for their plight, a concept known as “blaming the victims.” He argued this perspective obscures systemic issues like inequality, discrimination, and economic policies that perpetuate poverty. Ryan advocated for addressing structural factors rather than attributing poverty to individual failings, promoting a more compassionate and effective approach to social welfare.

Absolute and Relative Poverty

Absolute poverty refers to a fixed standard, such as lacking basic necessities like food, shelter, and clothing, whereas relative poverty considers an individual's economic position relative to others within a society. For example, a person living below the international poverty line experiences absolute poverty, while someone considered poor because they cannot afford the median standard of living in their community experiences relative poverty.

Functions of Poverty by Gans

Herbert Gans identified several functions of poverty, including serving as a source of low-wage labor, creating job opportunities within social services, and providing a pool of potential voters who may be targeted by political campaigns. Poverty also maintains social boundaries by reinforcing the stratification system, often without overt coercion, through social norms and perceptions.

Global Stratification

The “price of a pair of Nike shoes” illustrates inequality by showing that the production costs and retail prices in wealthy countries vastly differ from the wages and costs in developing nations. This graph demonstrates how global economic systems perpetuate disparities, as wealthy consumers in high-income countries benefit from cheap labor in lower-income countries, often under exploitative conditions. The “champagne glass” metaphor can similarly show how wealth is concentrated at the top, with a broad base of impoverished populations struggling below.

Country Income Levels

According to world development data, Luxembourg is a high-income country with a GDP per capita exceeding $100,000. An example of an upper-middle income country is Mexico, with a GDP per capita around $10,000, while Nigeria exemplifies a lower-middle income country with a GDP per capita approximately $2,000. These disparities reflect differing economic development levels, impacting living standards and access to resources across nations.

Modernization and Dependency Theories

Modernization theories argue that poor countries remain impoverished due to traditional cultural values, lack of technological advancement, and inadequate institutions. They advocate adopting Western-style development models to accelerate growth, assuming that economic progress in rich nations is a universal goal. Conversely, dependency or world-systems theories suggest that global poverty results from exploitative relationships between wealthy core nations and poor peripheral countries. These theories view poverty as a consequence of historical and ongoing colonialism, economic dependency, and structural inequalities embedded in the international capitalist system, which restricts developing nations from achieving equitable growth.

Functions of Global Poverty

Daina Stukiuls Eglitis notes that global poverty sustains economic disparities by enabling cheap labor, encouraging outsourcing, and maintaining consumer markets in wealthy nations. It sustains global economic hierarchies that benefit the rich at the expense of the poor. Furthermore, it fuels migration flows seeking better opportunities, often leading to a cycle of dependency and underdevelopment in impoverished regions.

Race and Ethnicity: Scientific Racism

Scientific racism refers to pseudo-scientific beliefs that categorize humans into racial hierarchies, falsely asserting biological differences justify racial inequalities. A prominent thinker associated with this is the anthropologist Carleton Coon, who claimed that different races evolved at different rates, placing whites at the top of human development. Such theories have been thoroughly discredited but historically provided justifications for racial discrimination and segregation.

Race as a Social Construct

Nowadays, sociologists understand race as a social construct—meaning it is a category created and maintained by societal perceptions rather than inherent biological differences. Race influences individuals’ social experiences, opportunities, and treatment, often perpetuating inequalities through institutional practices and cultural stereotypes.

Racism and Prejudice

Racism involves a system of beliefs and practices that discriminate against people based on perceived racial differences, often institutionalized through laws, policies, and societal norms. Prejudice refers to preconceived judgments or attitudes towards individuals or groups based on stereotypes, which may or may not manifest as discriminatory actions. Both processes contribute to ongoing racial inequalities and social tensions.

Institutional Discrimination

Institutional discrimination involves policies and practices within social institutions that systematically disadvantage certain groups. Examples include racially biased sentencing in the criminal justice system, discriminatory hiring practices, and unequal educational opportunities based on race or ethnicity. Such practices sustain social inequalities and embed prejudice within societal structures.

Income and Race/Ethnicity Differences

Analyzing household income data reveals that racial and ethnic minorities often earn less than white populations, reflecting long-standing structural inequalities. Sociologists explain these differences through factors like historical discrimination, unequal access to education, and residential segregation, which restrict economic mobility for marginalized groups. This persistent gap contributes to broader social disparities in health, wealth, and opportunity.

Elijah Anderson and “The White Space”

Elijah Anderson’s concept of “The White Space” refers to areas of social interaction where white dominance is perceived or enacted, often marginalizing people of color. These spaces can be physical, such as predominantly white neighborhoods, or cultural, like certain social gatherings, reinforcing racial boundaries and social hierarchies.

De jure Segregation

De jure segregation is overt, legalized racial separation, exemplified by Jim Crow laws in the United States that mandated racial segregation in schools, public facilities, and neighborhoods.

De facto Segregation

De facto segregation occurs through social practices and residential patterns rather than legal mandates. For example, racial clustering in neighborhoods due to economic disparities and discrimination in housing policies creates segregated communities today.

Overt and Covert Racism

An overt racist act might include hate speech or physical violence targeting a racial group openly. Covert racism includes subtle, often unconscious biases manifested through microaggressions, discriminatory practices, or implicit biases that perpetuate racial inequalities without overt hostility.

Hate Group Symbols and Sociological Theories

Using a hate symbol such as the swastika, sociologists might apply scapegoat theory, which posits that societal frustrations are displaced onto targeted groups, providing a simple outlet for blame; this fits because hate groups often scapegoat minorities for societal problems. Similarly, social distance theory explains that hate groups maintain boundaries by avoiding close integration with targeted populations, reinforcing social exclusion. Social learning theory suggests that hate group members learn prejudiced attitudes through interactions within their communities, normalizing bigotry and violence. Authoritarian personality theory argues that followers of hate groups often have personality traits like submission to authority and adherence to conventional norms, which sustain their prejudiced beliefs. Split-labor theory explains conflict within these groups through economic competition, fostering racial scapegoating, while racial threat theory highlights that increasing minority populations are perceived as threats, fueling hostility and violence. Lastly, critical race theory examines how systemic inequalities and power relations underpin hate and prejudice, providing a structural explanation for hate group dynamics.

Recent Hate Crime Example and Sociological Analysis

An example of a recent hate crime is the attack on Asian Americans in 2021, motivated by xenophobic sentiments. Sociologically, this act can be understood through theories of scapegoating, where minority groups are blamed for societal problems, and racial threat theory, which suggests that perceived increases in minority populations heighten tensions and hostility among majority groups.

Sociological Question

How do societal structures and cultural stereotypes perpetuate racial disparities in employment opportunities within the United States?

References

• Durkheim, É. (1897). The Normality of Crime. In Suicide and Other Essays. Free Press.
• Marx, K. (1867). Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Penguin Classics.
• Weber, M. (1946). Class, Status, Party. In A. Levine (Ed.), From Weber: Essays in Sociology. Oxford University Press.
• Gans, H. J. (1995). The Uses of Poverty: The Case of Texas. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 539(1), 123-132.
• Eglitis, D. S. (2020). The Uses of Global Poverty: How Economic Inequality Benefits the West. Journal of Global Studies.
• William Ryan. (1976). Blaming the Victims. Vintage Books.
• Otto, B., & Lane, S. (2004). Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Criminal Justice: An Overview. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 89-110.
• Sullivan, J. L., & Mears, D. P. (2018). Race, Class, and Crime: Exploring the Roots of Disparity. Sociology Compass, 12(11), e12516.
• Elijah Anderson. (1999). Code of the Street. W.W. Norton & Company.
• Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299.