Study Guide Exam 2 With Our Study Guide For Exam 1

Study Guide Exam 2as With Our Study Guide For Exam 1 You May Define

Study Guide: EXAM 2 As with our study guide for Exam 1- you may define, describe the function of, and share study tips or questions about a few of the following topics. You may use notes and books, and take this home for use as a study aide. I suggest you attempt one or two of the following learning techniques: a) Simple Saying/ Visual Aide (ex: the graph that represents rates of happiness from young to old age looks like a slight smile because across the lifespan, both younger and older people tend to be slightly more happy than those in middle age) b) Poem/Song (ex: I look you up and down once more… from the bottom up you are figure and form, from the top down you are the man I adore - bottom-up and top-down processing ) c) Personal Story (ex: When I was 5 or 6 years old –before learning conservation during Piaget’s concrete operational stage- I would spread my Halloween candy out over the whole floor, because it took up more space and made me think there was more of it!) d) Vivid example (ex: linguistic determinism theory explains why the first generation of signers at the Nicaraguan school (who had few signed words for thinking) had less ‘theory of mind’ than the younger signers (who had developed more complex signs including one meaning ‘I know something you don’t know’) ) e) Quiz yourself - take turns trying to get your classmates to guess the concept by offering clues as in the game Taboo or Password (ex: free-association, unconscious conflicts, therapy couch, Freud…. – psychoanalysis ) Chapter 4 - Developmental Psychology · Nature vs.

Nurture · Attachment Theory · Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development (and associated tasks) · Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development · Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood · Happiness across the Lifespan Chapter 6- Sensation and Perception · Sensation vs. Perception · Sensory Adaptation · Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing · BioPsychoSocial Model of Pain · Distance Perception Chapter 7- Learning · Associative Learning · Classical Conditioning: · US · UR · NS · CS · CR · Acquisition, Generalization, Extinction · Operant Conditioning: · (Positive & Negative) Reinforcement · (Positive & Negative) Punishment · Observational Learning Chapter 9- Language and Intelligence · Stages of Language Development · Linguistic Determinism · Spearman’s G · Multiple Intelligences (including emotional intelligence) · Psychological Tests (Standardization, Reliability, Validity) Chapter 14- Disorders · Defined · DSM (pros and cons) · Anxiety Disorders (types, symptoms, and possible causes) · Mood Disorders (types, symptoms, and possible causes) Chapter 15- Therapies (theories and techniques) · Psychoanalysis · Humanistic (client-centered therapies) · Behavior Therapy · Cognitive Therapy · Commonalities of Diverse Therapies · Positive Expectancies · Therapeutic Alliance · Evidence Based Practice

Paper For Above instruction

The upcoming exam covers a broad range of topics within psychology, emphasizing understanding key theories, developmental stages, sensory and perceptual processes, learning mechanisms, language and intelligence, psychological disorders, and therapeutic approaches. To prepare effectively, it is crucial to integrate definitions with practical examples, employ diverse study techniques, and connect theories to real-world applications. This paper discusses essential concepts from these topics, offering insights and study strategies for successful comprehension and retention.

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology focuses on how humans grow and change across the lifespan, influenced by the interplay of nature and nurture. The nature versus nurture debate considers genetic predispositions versus environmental factors shaping development. Attachment theory, pioneered by Bowlby and Ainsworth, emphasizes the importance of early relationships in social and emotional development, with secure attachments fostering healthy interpersonal skills. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development—sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational—describe how children’s thinking evolves through specific tasks aligned with each stage. For example, during the conservation task in Piaget’s concrete operational stage, children realize that quantity remains constant despite changes in appearance. Erickson’s psychosocial stages highlight lifespan challenges, such as identity versus role confusion during adolescence and intimacy versus isolation in emerging adulthood. Happiness across the lifespan often follows a U-shaped curve, with higher levels in youth and older age, and dips during middle age, reflecting changes in life circumstances and emotional regulation.

Sensation and Perception

Sensation involves the process of detecting stimuli from the environment, while perception interprets these stimuli, creating meaningful experiences. Sensory adaptation refers to the decreased sensitivity to constant or repetitive stimuli, illustrating the brain’s efficiency in filtering irrelevant information. Top-down processing involves using existing knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory input, whereas bottom-up processing starts with raw data from sensory organs. The biopsychosocial model of pain encompasses physical, psychological, and social factors influencing pain perception. Distance perception, a subset of perceptual processes, relies on cues like linear perspective and relative size to gauge how far objects are.

Learning

Learning theories explain how behaviors acquire and change over time. Classical conditioning, developed by Pavlov, involves associating an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR) with a neutral stimulus (NS), which becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), producing a conditioned response (CR). Acquisition, generalization, and extinction describe the stages of forming and weakening these associations. Operant conditioning, pioneered by Skinner, explains how reinforcement (positive or negative) increases behaviors, while punishment decreases them. Observational learning, as modeled by Bandura, emphasizes learning through observing and imitating others.

Language and Intelligence

Language development progresses through several stages, from babbling to complex sentences. Linguistic determinism suggests that language shapes thought, influencing cognitive processes and worldview. Spearman’s g refers to general intelligence, a core factor underlying various cognitive abilities. Multiple intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, and emotional intelligence, broaden traditional notions of IQ. Psychological assessments must be standardized, reliable, and valid to accurately measure abilities, personality, or disorders.

Psychological Disorders

Psychological disorders are persistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that cause distress or impairment. The DSM categorizes and diagnoses these conditions, though it faces criticism for over-pathologizing normal variations and lacking biological markers. Anxiety disorders encompass generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, and OCD, often linked to genetic, environmental, and neurochemical factors. Mood disorders include depression and bipolar disorder, with symptoms like persistent sadness or extreme mood swings, possibly arising from genetic predispositions, brain chemistry, or life stressors.

Therapeutic Approaches

Psychotherapy encompasses various techniques tailored to individual needs. Psychoanalysis aims to uncover unconscious conflicts through free association and dream analysis, rooted in Freud’s theories. Humanistic therapies, like client-centered therapy, focus on empathy, unconditional positive regard, and self-actualization. Behavior therapy employs conditioning principles to modify maladaptive behaviors, while cognitive therapy targets distorted thinking patterns. Despite differences, effective therapies often share common features such as positive expectancies, a strong therapeutic alliance, and evidence-based practices to ensure treatment efficacy.

Conclusion

Understanding these core areas of psychology enhances our ability to analyze human behavior and mental processes critically. Employing diverse study strategies like visual aids, personal stories, and quizzes can improve retention. Recognizing how developmental, perceptual, and learning theories interconnect provides a comprehensive framework for exam success and practical application in clinical, educational, and everyday contexts.

References

• Baer, J. (2017). Psychology: A Visual Approach. Pearson.
• Cherry, K. (2020). Theories of Development in Psychology. VeryWell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com
• Hockenbury, D., & Hockenbury, S. (2018). Psychology (8th ed.). Worth Publishers.
• LeDoux, J. (2015). Anxious: Using the Brain to Understand and Treat Fear and Anxiety. Viking.
• Neisser, U. (2014). Cognition and Reality: Principles and Implications of Cognitive Psychology. W. H. Freeman.
• Piaget, J. (1972). The Psychology of the Child. Basic Books.
• Sternberg, R. J. (2019). Successful Intelligence. Cambridge University Press.
• Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., & Wegner, D. M. (2011). Psychology (3rd ed.). Worth Publishers.
• Spaulding, S., & VanDerHeyden, A. (2018). Learning Strategies and Study Skills in Psychology. Oxford University Press.
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.).