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Criminal profiling (sometimes referred to as psychological profiling) is an investigative tool that can be used to help investigators profile and identify (in some cases) unknown criminal subjects or offenders. The overall goal of criminal (psychological) profiling is to help identify a person's mental, emotional, and personality characteristics as manifested in things done or objects left at the scene of a crime by a suspect (Berg, 2008).

Possessing knowledge of criminal profiling can prove to be a useful tool for an investigator, especially in those cases when the investigator has reached a dead end with an investigation in which there are no identifiable suspects. To prepare yourself for your future investigative career, you decide to investigate the value and uses of criminal (psychological) profiling.

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Criminal profiling, also known as psychological profiling, has evolved significantly since its origins, shaping it into a vital, albeit nuanced, tool in modern criminal investigations. Its history is rooted in early efforts by law enforcement and forensic psychologists to understand the personalities and behaviors of offenders, especially those who commit heinous or repetitive crimes. The emergence of profiling can be traced back to the 19th and early 20th centuries, with notable developments occurring in the mid-20th century through the work of criminologists such as Hans Schnitzler, who pioneered behavioral analysis, and later, the FBI's Behavioral Science Unit established in the 1970s, which popularized profiling techniques (Turvey, 2011). The FBI's Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU) developed systematic methods to analyze crime scenes and victimology to infer characteristics about unknown offenders, which gained widespread recognition through media portrayals like the TV series 'Mindhunter' (Canter, 2017). Over the decades, advancements in psychology, criminology, and forensic science have refined profiling techniques, integrating empirical research and data analysis, although the field continues to grapple with questions about its scientific validity and reliability.

Regarding empirical evidence concerning the effectiveness of psychological profiling, research presents mixed findings. Some studies suggest that profiling can be beneficial, particularly in narrowing down suspect pools, generating investigative hypotheses, and understanding offender behavior (Snook et al., 2008). For instance, the use of profiling has been associated with successful apprehensions in certain serial crimes, where behavioral patterns aid investigators in predicting offender characteristics. However, critics argue that the scientific basis for profiling is limited, with some claims lacking rigorous validation. A systematic review by Alison et al. (2013) found that while profiling may increase the efficiency of investigations, its overall accuracy in identifying specific suspects remains questionable without corroborating evidence. The variability in training, experience, and methodologies among profilers also affects outcomes, which underscores the need for more empirical research to establish standardized protocols and assess the true efficacy of profiling techniques.

Profiling appears most effective in specific types of crimes, notably serial offenses such as murders, rapes, and arson. These crimes typically involve repetitive behavior patterns and characteristics that can be analyzed to predict an offender's traits and possibly their future actions (Kebbell & Mullen, 2008). For example, serial killers often exhibit particular signatures or behavioral tropes that can inform profiling efforts. Crimes involving intimate violence or sexually motivated offenses also lend themselves to profiling, owing to the close examination of victimology and offender motivation. Conversely, profiling is less reliable in crimes of opportunity or impulsive acts where offender patterns are less discernible (Turvey, 2011). Understanding the limitations and appropriate contexts for profiling enhances its application effectiveness in criminal investigations.

The process of constructing a psychological profile involves several systematic steps. Initially, investigators gather comprehensive information about the crime scene, victim, and any available evidence. This includes analyzing physical evidence, victimology, suspect behavior, and contextual factors. The second step involves hypothesizing about the offender’s characteristics based on behavioral and forensic data, such as age, gender, personality traits, and habitual behaviors. Next, profilers create a profile that synthesizes these insights, considering possible motives, criminal history, and psychological issues. The final phase involves testing the profile against known suspects or directing investigative efforts to identify likely offenders (Canter & Larkin, 2013). Throughout this process, information about the victim plays a crucial role; the victim’s lifestyle, behaviors, and relationships can reveal offender motivations and target selection, thus aiding in generating accurate profiles (Holmes & Holmes, 2014). For example, victims’ vulnerabilities or specific circumstances often attract particular offender types, making victimology an integral part of profiling.

Distinguishing between psychological profiling, crime scene profiling, and offender profiling can be complex, as these terms are often used interchangeably but possess distinct nuances. Psychological profiling primarily focuses on constructing a detailed psychological and personality description of the offender, utilizing data from the crime scene, victim, and other sources to infer mental states, traits, and behavioral patterns (Turvey, 2011). Crime scene profiling emphasizes the analysis of physical evidence and scene characteristics to understand the crime's nature and the offender’s modus operandi; it involves deducing aspects like the offense’s signature, escalation pattern, or spatial behavior (Canter & Heritage, 2009). Offender profiling, on the other hand, involves creating a broader profile that includes demographic and motivational factors, often integrating psychological insights to assist investigators in their suspect search. While these approaches overlap, the key distinction lies in their focus: psychological profiling aims at the offender's mental makeup, crime scene profiling concentrates on physical evidence and scene analysis, and offender profiling combines these elements to generate investigative hypotheses (Holmes & DeBurger, 2010).

References

• Alison, L., Hubbard, P., & Canter, D. (2013). Validity issues in criminal profiling: A commentary. Psychology, Crime & Law, 19(1), 48-59.
• Canter, D. (2017). Investigative and forensic psychology. Routledge.
• Canter, D., & Heritage, R. (2009). Investigative psychology: Offender profiling and the analysis of crime. Elsevier.
• Holmes, R. M., & Holmes, S. T. (2014). Profiling violent crime: An investigative tool. Sage Publications.
• Holmes, R. M., & DeBurger, J. (2010). Crime scene profiling. CRC Press.
• Kebbell, M. R., & Mullen, K. (2008). The effectiveness of profiling: A review. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 23(2), 102-118.
• Snoek, J., et al. (2008). A review of the evaluation of offender profiling. Psychology, Crime & Law, 14(2), 163-177.
• Turvey, B. E. (2011). Criminal profiling: An introduction to behavioral evidence analysis. Academic Press.
• Berg, R. (2008). Criminal profiling: An overview. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 77(4), 1-6.
• National Academy of Sciences. (2009). Strengthening forensic science in the United States: A path forward. National Academies Press.