The Belief That Humans Are Subdivided Into Distinct Heredity

The Belief That Humans Are Subdivided Into Distinct Hereditary Grou

The belief that humans are subdivided into distinct hereditary groups that are innately different in their social behavior and mental capacities and that can therefore be ranked as superior or inferior, according to Martin Marger, is called ethnocentrism.

Ethnocentrism refers to the habit of viewing one's own group with favor and viewing other groups and their differences with disfavor. Thus, ethnocentrism involves noticing differences, then ranking, and, finally, placing one's own group at the top of a classification. All others who differ are regarded as inferior.

McGee, other anthropologists, and many others of his generation believed in the survival of the fittest. Social Darwinists, following the ideas of Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), believed that only the fittest individuals survive and that the "inferior," weak, and less able ones necessarily and rightfully should be left to die off. Social Darwinism was used to justify slavery and to postpone its abolition in the United States. It was also used to support the often cutthroat environment of capitalism that prevailed in American businesses and factories at the turn of the twentieth century. Social Darwinists believed the poor and "unfit," including members of "primitive races," should be left to die rather than be helped and kept alive by charity. Theodore Roosevelt, campaigning for the presidency of the United States in 1898, echoed this view when he said, "I hope that every man who strives to be efficient and moral will realize that it is for the interest of mankind to have civilization go forward, to have the higher supplant the lower life" (Paulet, 2001, p. 3). This statement reflected a misreading of Darwin. True or False?

People have always been able to self-identify or to determine one's own racial group when filling out the census. True or False?

All humans are descended from common ancestors originating from Africa. True or False?

Race, ethnicity, and culture are biological, and thus are not social constructs. True or False?

The science of breeding is called eugenics.

What is it called when enslaved mothers passed down the status of bondage to their children? A. Vendue B. Indenture C. Manumission D. Chattle Slavery

What is it called when one group gives up their customs and language and adopts those of the dominant group in order to attempt to blend in and become indistinguishable from the members of that group? A. Competition B. Accommodation C. Assimilation D. Contact

The study of cultures for their own attributes, without assigning value judgments is called cultural relativity.

The majority or dominant group in society is the group that controls most of the resources and wields the most power within different institutional settings. These settings include those of government, religion, education, and commerce. Minority groups lack equal access to these institutional settings, resources, privileges, and opportunities. The power imbalance reinforces the notion that minority groups are inferior. True or False?

In 1830, the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act to seize lands historically occupied by Native Americans for government use and for private farming by white settlers.

Policies, programs, and funding set aside to help minorities and women overcome the history of discrimination is called affirmative action.

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, many Americans developed strong feelings against Japanese Americans and believed that the Japanese Americans were a danger to the security of the nation. In 1942, in another exercise of plenary power, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which mandated the immediate removal of Japanese American individuals from coastal areas in Washington, Oregon, and California (Saito, 2007). Virtually all Japanese Americans in this region were asked to leave the universities where they studied and ordered to abandon their businesses, homes, and farms. About 10,000 Japanese Americans were able to relocate to other parts of the United States in time to avoid the internment, but over 110,000 were evacuated to hastily built relocation centers (Saito, 2007). With so little time to prepare for relocation, most lost their entire businesses, farms, and all personal possessions. What was this called? A. The Japanese Removal Act B. The Dawes Act C. Japanese American Enslavement D. Executive Order 9066: The Japanese Internment

In 1857, the Supreme Court handed down a decision in the case of Scott v. Sandford (1857), stating that African Americans were not citizens and therefore were not entitled to the benefits of American citizenship. This decision is called the Dred Scott Decision.

In addition to presenting so-called racial groups, the Congress of Races at the St. Louis fair had a second objective which was to justify dismantling American policies toward conquered groups at home and abroad. True or False?

The first American sociologist to study race was W.E.B. Du Bois.

Some states passed mandatory sterilization laws for those deemed unfit and legislated restrictive marriage clauses. Virginia, for example, made it illegal for a white person to marry a person who had "one drop" of black blood (Black, 2003, p. 165). These laws were intended to prevent "mongrels and mental defectives" from reproducing and spreading their damaged genes through society. Mandatory sterilization laws were applied in the United States, where many individuals in mental institutions and in institutions for the feebleminded were sterilized without their consent. In California, over 11,000 inmates of institutions were sterilized. True or False?

With money from the United States as well as other international funding, Germany founded the Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics in 1927 to conduct research on eugenics. One of the contributors of ideas to this enterprise was American eugenicist Charles Davenport, the head of the Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor (New York), where he founded the Eugenics Record Office. In Heredity in Relation to Eugenics (1911), Davenport examined how race and disease were biologically based and determined that the "racially robust" were destined to rule the earth (Black, 2003, p. 386). Davenport’s subsequent book Race Crossing in Jamaica (1929) was of special interest to the Germans. His contribution enabled the Nazis to use "pedigrees," or family trees, to identify Mischlinge (mixed-race Jews). True or False?

Reading and interpreting the bumps on the skull was one method used to assess an individual's abilities and character and was called phrenology.

Paper For Above instruction

The presented collection of questions and statements investigates the complex and often troubling history of human beliefs about race, heredity, and social hierarchy. It encompasses scientific, cultural, and political dimensions that have shaped societal attitudes and policies. This analysis aims to clarify these issues, exploring the roots of racial classification, discrimination, and eugenics, and their implications in contemporary society.

Introduction

Understanding human diversity involves examining the historical and scientific contexts that underpin ideas about race and heredity. Historically, humans have sought to categorize themselves into groups believed to differ innate in social and intellectual capacities. These beliefs have often justified discriminatory practices and social stratification. The concept of race, which many mistakenly believed to be purely biological, has been a powerful tool for justifying inequalities—an issue that has persisted into modern times. Equally important is understanding the social constructs of ethnicity and culture, which are often wrongly viewed as biological realities.

The Roots and Development of Racial Theories

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, pseudoscientific theories such as Social Darwinism gained prominence. Prominent figures like Herbert Spencer argued that society progressed through the survival of the fittest—an idea that was misapplied to justify slavery, imperialism, and racial discrimination (Smedley & Smedley, 2005). Such theories falsely claimed that certain races or groups were less evolved or inferior, which justified unequal treatment and policies like segregation and forced sterilization (Lombardo, 2011). These ideas were often rooted in eugenics, an attempt to improve the human race through controlled breeding, which led to devastating practices, including involuntary sterilizations (Black, 2003).

Legislation and Policies Shaping Race and Social Hierarchies

Throughout U.S. history, legislative actions exemplify systemic racial discrimination. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forcibly relocated Native Americans, exemplifying state-sponsored dispossession (Calloway, 2012). Policies such as the sterilization laws in states like Virginia aimed at eugenic control over populations deemed unfit, particularly targeting those with mental disabilities and minority groups (Lombardo, 2011). Federal policies also reinforced racial hierarchies; for example, the Dred Scott Decision of 1857 declared that African Americans could not be citizens, which legally justified their systemic exclusion from American rights (Gould, 2002).

Scientific Racism and Its Justifications

Scientific racism sought to lend legitimacy to racial hierarchies through pseudo-scientific methods. The study of skull shapes in phrenology and craniometry, used to assess intelligence and character, exemplifies such flawed attempts (Hooton, 1926). Similarly, pioneers like Charles Davenport promoted hereditary theories that equated race with biological function, often emphasizing the supposed superiority of certain groups while demeaning others (Black, 2003). These ideas influenced Nazi racial policies, where eugenics played a central role in atrocities committed during the Holocaust (Wistrich, 2010).

The Impact of Discriminatory Policies on Individuals

The measures taken against Japanese Americans during World War II, notably Executive Order 9066, exemplify systemic racial discrimination based on fear and prejudice. Entire communities faced internment, economic loss, and the destruction of their livelihoods (Saito, 2007). Similar policies targeted African Americans and other minorities, reinforcing social stratification and denying basic civil rights (Daniels, 2004). These policies reflected societal beliefs in racial hierarchy and dehumanization, which had tangible, often devastating impacts on individuals and communities.

Contemporary Reflections and Continuing Challenges

Modern society grapples with the legacies of these past beliefs and policies. The social construct of race is now recognized as a product of historical and cultural processes rather than biological determinants. Nonetheless, racial disparities persist in health, education, and economic opportunity, underscoring the enduring influence of systemic discrimination (Williams & Mohammed, 2009). Efforts to promote cultural relativity and challenge ethnocentric perspectives are vital in fostering social justice and equity (Banks, 2010).

Conclusion

The history of racial classification, eugenics, and discrimination reveals a pattern of pseudoscience and prejudice that has inflicted profound harm. Recognizing the social construction of race and the destructive nature of policies rooted in scientific racism is essential to promoting equality. Continuing education and policy reform are necessary steps toward dismantling the legacies of racial hierarchies and fostering an inclusive society based on shared humanity.

References

• Banks, J. A. (2010). An Introduction to Multicultural Education. Pearson.
• Black, E. (2003). Eugenics and the American Dream: A Reconsideration. New York University Press.
• Calloway, C. G. (2012). The American Revolution in Indian Country. Cambridge University Press.
• Daniels, R. (2004). Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II. Hill & Wang.
• Gould, S. J. (2002). The Mismeasure of Man. W. W. Norton & Company.
• Hooton, E. A. (1926). Craniometry and American Racism. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 9(4), 319-339.
• Lombardo, P. A. (2011). Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme Court, and Buck v. Bell. Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Smedley, A., & Smedley, B. D. (2005). Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview. Westview Press.
• Saito, N. (2007). Japanese American Internment During WWII. ABC-CLIO.
• Wistrich, R. S. (2010). A Lethal Obsession: Anti-Semitism from Antiquity to the Global Jihad. Modern Library.
• Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and Racial Disparities in Health: Evidence and Needed Research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 20-47.