The Information-Processing Approach © 2018 McGraw-Hill High

The Information-Processing Approach © 2018 McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Describe the information-processing approach. Characterize attention and summarize how it changes during development. Discuss memory in terms of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Draw some lessons about learning from the way experts think. Explain the concept of metacognition and identify some ways to improve children’s metacognition.

Sample Paper For Above instruction

The cognitive development of children has been extensively studied through various theoretical frameworks. Among these, the information-processing approach provides a comprehensive understanding of how children manipulate, monitor, and strategize about information. Rooted in cognitive psychology, this approach likens the human mind to a computer, emphasizing the role of mental processes such as attention, memory, and problem-solving in learning and development.

This paper explores the core principles of the information-processing approach, examines the development of attention, delves into the mechanisms of memory, and extracts lessons on learning from expert cognition. Additionally, it discusses the concept of metacognition, its importance in learning, and strategies for enhancing children’s metacognitive skills.

The Information-Processing Approach

The information-processing approach models mental functions similar to how computers process data. It posits that children are active participants who manipulate information through processes such as attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval. These processes are dynamic and develop over time with biological maturation and experiential learning. The approach emphasizes that children’s cognitive capacity is bounded by biological constraints, yet flexible and improvable through strategic interventions.

The approach underscores three primary mechanisms of developmental change: encoding, automaticity, and strategy construction. Encoding involves transforming sensory input into mental representations; automaticity refers to the ability to perform tasks with little conscious effort, often as a result of practice; and strategy construction pertains to discovering new ways of processing information to improve efficiency (Siegler, 1998, 2016). These mechanisms work in tandem, enabling children to become better learners over time.

The Development of Attention

Attention is a fundamental cognitive process and involves focusing mental resources on relevant stimuli. It includes several types: selective attention, divided attention, sustained attention, and executive attention. Selective attention allows children to focus on pertinent aspects of their environment, dismissing distractions. As children develop, their ability to sustain attention and control their focus improves significantly.

Developmentally, there is an increase in attention span, the capacity to filter irrelevant stimuli, and cognitive control over attention. These enhancements contribute to better academic performance and more effective problem-solving (Christ et al., 2015). For example, young children often struggle with maintaining attention, but with age, they learn to focus longer and manage their attention strategically.

Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

Memory is central to learning and can be understood through three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored; storage refers to maintaining this information over time; and retrieval is the process of accessing stored information when needed.

Educational psychologists recognize various strategies to enhance each stage. Effective encoding techniques include rehearsal, elaboration, and organization. For example, chunking—grouping related items into higher-order units—facilitates better encoding (Miller, 1956). Memory storage occurs over different time frames: sensory memory lasts less than a second, short-term memory generally retains information for about 30 seconds, and long-term memory stores information indefinitely.

Retrieval can be improved through methods such as spaced rehearsal, retrieval practice, and mnemonic devices. These strategies help solidify learning and enhance recall. Understanding the differences, such as episodic memory (specific events) and semantic memory (general knowledge), allows educators to tailor instruction to promote durable learning (Tulving, 1972).

Lessons from Expertise in Learning

Expert learners demonstrate distinctive patterns in their approach to acquiring and utilizing knowledge. They detect meaningful features, organize information around core concepts, and retrieve knowledge effortlessly. These abilities are developed through deliberate practice and extensive experience, which help form elaborate knowledge networks in memory (Ericsson, 2006).

Experts display superior problem-solving abilities due to their ability to recognize patterns and chunk information efficiently. They can adapt their strategies to new situations, exhibiting flexible thinking and openness to re-evaluating their understanding. Such characteristics suggest that developing expertise involves not only accumulating knowledge but also learning to organize and access it effectively.

For children, fostering expertise entails encouraging strategic learning, repeated practice, and providing opportunities for reflection. Teachers can facilitate this process by modeling expert behaviors, promoting deep understanding, and supporting the development of adaptive problem-solving skills.

Metacognition and Its Role in Learning

Metacognition, often defined as "knowing about knowing," involves awareness and regulation of one’s own cognitive processes. It encompasses metacognitive knowledge—knowing about strategies and one's own thinking—and metacognitive activities, such as monitoring progress and adjusting strategies accordingly (Flavell, 1977).

Children’s metacognitive skills improve through developmental stages, starting with simple awareness and progressing toward sophisticated regulation. Enhancing these skills enables learners to evaluate their understanding, identify gaps, and select appropriate strategies for learning tasks. For example, self-questioning and self-testing foster metacognitive awareness and control.

Educational interventions aimed at strengthening metacognition include teaching students explicit strategies, encouraging reflection on learning, and providing opportunities for self-assessment. When students become aware of their learning processes, they are more likely to adopt effective strategies, persevere through difficulties, and achieve better outcomes (Brown, 1987).

Ways to Improve Children’s Metacognition

Several practical approaches can be employed by educators and parents to enhance children’s metacognitive skills. Modeling effective strategies, such as think-aloud protocols, helps children learn how experts approach tasks. Encouraging self-questioning and reflection fosters awareness of their thinking patterns.

Providing opportunities for children to plan, monitor, and evaluate their work supports metacognitive development. Techniques like self-explanation, goal setting, and feedback sessions allow children to become active participants in their own learning processes (Schraw & Dennison, 1994). Additionally, integrating metacognitive training into curricula across subjects promotes generalization of these skills.

Finally, fostering a classroom environment that values effort, self-reflection, and strategic thinking encourages students to become self-regulated learners, ultimately leading to improved academic achievement and lifelong learning skills.

Conclusion

The information-processing approach offers valuable insights into children’s cognitive development by emphasizing mechanisms like attention, memory, and strategy use. Developmentally, improvements in attention control and memory encoding enhance learning capabilities. Insights from experts reveal that organization, pattern recognition, and automatic retrieval are key to mastery. Moreover, fostering metacognition enables children to become more effective learners by actively managing their thinking processes. Educational practices that integrate these principles can significantly improve children's cognitive growth and academic success.

References

• Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other mysterious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 65-116). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Christ, S. E., Wang, Z., & McClelland, M. M. (2015). Engagement and effortful attention: Their relation to regulation and academic achievement. Developmental Psychology, 51(4), 560–573.
• Ericsson, K. A. (2006). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406.
• Flavell, J. H. (1977). Cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 32(10), 906–911.
• Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97.
• Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. ContemporaryEducational Psychology, 19(4), 460–475.
• Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. Organization of Memory, 1–69.
• Siegler, R. S. (1998). Development of numerical knowledge in children’s learning. Handbook of Child Psychology, 2, 127–168.
• Siegler, R. S. (2016). Developing computational and mathematical cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(6), 414–420.
• Additional references for further reading are available from recent cognitive development research literature.