The Psychology Of The Person: Neo-Freudians Background

The Psychology Of The Personneo Freudiansbackground For The Emergence

The Psychology of the Person Neo-Freudians Background for the Emergence of the Neo-Freudians Many scholars who gathered around Freud in Vienna eventually broke away from the Vienna group to develop their own theories of personality and establish their own schools of psychology. Collectively, these theorists are known as the neo-Freudians because they retained many basic Freudian concepts and assumptions. Limitations of Freudian Theory According to the Neo-Freudians Among the limits they saw in Freud's theory were: His failure to recognize personality change after the first few years of life His emphasis on instinctual over social influences The generally negative picture he painted of human nature. (Cont-d) They differed from Freud along some aspects of his theory Freud put emphasis on early childhood and on instinctual drives, without considering social factors.

The neo-Freudians also objected to the overall pessimistic tone of Freud, and his views of female inferiority. Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology Adler was an eye-doctor, who was a weak and sick child His autobiography is important for the understanding of his ideas Alfred Adler introduced the concept of striving for superiority to account for most human motivation. It is the ONLY motivation in life Superiority and Inferiority Adler argued that we are motivated to overcome feelings of helplessness that are rooted in the infant’s dependence on others The striving for superiority is not expressed as an egotistic sense of grandiosity, but rather in social interest, meaning working to benefit others. Parental Behavior and Birth order Adler also identified parental pampering and neglect as two sources of later personality problems.

He argued that middle born children were the most achieving and were less likely to experience psychological disorders than were first-born or last-born. Birth Order First children: Prone to perfectionism and need for affirmation (the child losing the parents' undivided attention and compensating throughout life by working to get it back). In addition, this child may be expected to set an example and be given responsibility for younger siblings. Middle: More competitive, rebellious, and consistent in attempting to be the best. May struggle with figuring out their place in the family and, later, in the world. May be the most flexible and diplomatic members of the family.

Youngest: May be dependent and selfish due to always being taken care of by family members. However, this child may also possess positive traits of confidence, ability to have fun, and comfort at entertaining others. Only: May have a hard time when they are told no, and school may be a difficult transition as they are not the sole focus of the teacher. More mature, feel more comfortable around adults, and even do better in intellectual and creative pursuits. Twins: One is usually seen as the older and is stronger and more active. This one often becomes the leader, though both may develop identity problems due to being treated as one unit instead of two people. Carl Jung and Analytical Psychology Carl Jung proposed the existence of a collective unconscious that houses primordial images he called archetypes. The collective unconscious contains material each of us inherited from past generations and is basically the same for all people. Evidence for the collective unconscious was in ethnic myths, religions, dreams. Archetypes Jung used the terms Archetypes or Primordial Images to refer to the collective unconscious materials. Most important of the archetypes are the anima, the animus, and the shadow.

Jung pointed to the recurrent surfacing of archetypal symbols in folklore, art, dreams, and psychotic patients as evidence for their existence. Symbol (?) Erik Erikson and Ego Psychology Role of ego: To establish and maintain a sense of identity. Development across the lifespan: Erikson divided the lifespan into 8 phases. Each phase had a developmental task to accomplish, which Erikson called “crisis”. The crisis can be resolved either positively or negatively, affecting further development. The Eight Phases of Development Infancy: Trust vs. mistrust. Child depends on the responsiveness of the caregivers. Toddler: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Allowing the child to explore provides a sense of mastery over the environment. Early Childhood: Initiative vs. Guilt. Learn how to interact with others, seek out playmates, and resolve conflicts. Elementary School: Industry vs. Inferiority. Social comparison with classmates may evoke a sense of competence or failure. Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion. Time of experimentation. Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation. Developing intimate relationships. Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation. Guiding the next generation or involving in self-indulgence. Older Age: Ego Integrity vs. Despair. Reflection on past experience creates a sense of integrity and acceptance. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Among the personality assessment instruments to come out of the neo-Freudian theories is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. This test measures “psychological types”, as outlined by Jung. Test scores divide people into types along four dimensions: extraversion-introversion, sensing-intuitive, thinking-feeling, and judgment-perception. Researchers have challenged the way the test divides people into categories. Karen Horney and Feminine Psychology Karen Horney rejected Freud's emphasis on instinctual causes of personality development. She argued that the differences Freud saw between the personalities of men and women were more likely the result of social factors than inherited predispositions.

Horney maintained that neurotic behavior is the result of interpersonal styles developed in childhood to overcome anxiety. She identified three neurotic styles, which she called moving toward people, moving against people, and moving away from people. Klein & Winnicott Ego as arising out of primitive threats to existence (survival mechanism). Object relations: Theory of relationships between people, in particular within a family and especially between the mother and her child. We are driven to form relationships with others and that failure to form successful early relationships leads to later problems. Relation between the subject and their internalized objects, as well as with external objects. Thus, we have a relationship with the internal mother as well as an external one. Relations with the breast are significant. As the child feeds, it feels gratified and satiated when the breast produces sufficient milk, in which case it is loved and cherished. When the child is prematurely withdrawn or the breast does not provide sufficient food, the child is frustrated and the breast is hated and the recipient of hostile thoughts. Extremes of feeling: projection and association of bad feelings. Related to attachment theory. Current Status of the Neo-Freudians The Neo-Freudians are mentioned today primarily because of their historical relevance. Among the strengths of the neo-Freudian theories are the contributions they made to psychoanalytic theory. Many later approaches to personality were influenced by one or more of these theorists. Criticisms of the neo-Freudians include their use of biased and questionable data to support the theories. In addition, critics have charged that some of the theories are oversimplified and incomplete.

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Introduction

The emergence of the neo-Freudians marked a significant evolution in psychoanalytic and personality theories, offering new perspectives and critiques of Freud's original ideas. Originating from scholars who initially gathered around Sigmund Freud in Vienna, these thinkers sought to retain essential Freudian concepts while addressing perceived limitations. Their theories have had enduring influence, shaping modern psychological thought and therapy approaches. This essay provides a comprehensive analysis of the neo-Freudian movement, focusing on key figures including Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, Karen Horney, Klein, and Winnicott. It critically examines their contributions, interconnected themes such as social interest, archetypes, development across the lifespan, and object relations, as well as the critiques and current relevance of neo-Freudian theories.

Limitations of Freudian Theory and the Rise of Neo-Freudians

Freud's psychoanalysis was groundbreaking yet faced criticisms for its narrow focus on instinctual drives and early childhood. Many neo-Freudians believed that Freud's emphasis on innate drives overlooked crucial social and cultural influences affecting personality development (Gerald & Hynes, 2020). They also challenged Freud's generally pessimistic view of human nature and his underestimation of personality change beyond early childhood (King, 2018). These scholars aimed to modify psychoanalytic theory to incorporate social interests, lifelong development, and a more optimistic view of human potential.

Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology

Adler, originally an ophthalmologist, contributed a distinctive perspective emphasizing the striving for superiority as the primary motivation in life. His focus on social interest as a healthy trait contrasted sharply with Freud’s instinct-driven model (Adler, 1937). Adler argued that feelings of inferiority motivate individuals to overcome helplessness rooted in early dependence (Daniels & Diessner, 2017). His theory emphasizes the importance of social environment, including parental behavior and birth order, in shaping personality. For example, first-born children tend to develop perfectionism and need for affirmation, while middle children often display rebellious and competitive traits. Adler’s emphasis on social interest and the developmental impact of family dynamics remain influential in modern counseling and psychotherapy.

Carl Jung and Analytical Psychology

Jung introduced the concept of the collective unconscious—a reservoir of shared human memories and archetypes, such as the anima, animus, and shadow (Jung, 1959). These archetypes, inherited from ancestors, manifest in myths, dreams, and art, revealing universal themes of human experience. Jung believed that individual psychological development was influenced by integrating these archetypes, which serve as symbolic representations of universal human motifs. His work extended psychoanalysis into a broader cultural and spiritual realm, emphasizing the importance of balance between conscious and unconscious elements for psychological health.

Erik Erikson and Ego Psychology

Erikson expanded psychoanalytic theory through his psychosocial stages of development, positing that personality evolves across the lifespan through resolving specific crises (Erikson, 1968). His model emphasizes the ego's role in establishing identity and adapting to social realities. The eight stages, from trust vs. mistrust in infancy to ego integrity vs. despair in old age, highlight the importance of social relationships and cultural influences in personality development (Johnson & Williams, 2020). Each stage involves a crisis that must be resolved positively for healthy development, underscoring lifelong growth rather than fixed early childhood processes.

Karen Horney and Feminine Psychology

Horney challenged Freud’s view of female inferiority and biological determinism. She argued that social and cultural factors largely shape personality differences and neurotic behaviors (Horney, 1937). Her theory of neurotic needs and styles—moving towards, against, or away from people—explains how individuals develop strategies to manage anxiety and achieve security (Mitchell, 2019). Horney’s focus on interpersonal relationships and her critique of Freud’s biological bias influenced contemporary views on gender roles and personality development in social contexts.

Klein and Winnicott: Object Relations Theory

Object relations theory emphasizes early relationships, particularly between mother and child, as fundamental to personality development (Klein, 1946; Winnicott, 1965). Klein highlighted the importance of internalized images of others, which influence ongoing relationships and emotional functioning. Winnicott introduced concepts like the true self and the importance of a nurturing environment for healthy development. Both theorists underscore that disruptions in early relationships can lead to psychological difficulties later in life, linking early emotional experiences with later mental health issues.

Current Relevance and Criticisms of Neo-Freudian Theories

Today, neo-Freudian theories are recognized primarily for their historical influence. They expanded psychoanalytic thought, integrating social, cultural, and developmental perspectives that remain central to contemporary psychology (McLeod, 2018). However, their reliance on biased or anecdotal data and the oversimplification of complex human behaviors have faced critique. Some argue that neo-Freudian theories lack empirical rigor and are overly focused on individual pathology, neglecting broader societal influences (Brown, 2021). Despite these critiques, the emphasis on social factors, lifespan development, and relational dynamics enrich our understanding of personality and continue to inform clinical practice.

Conclusion

The neo-Freudian movement significantly shaped modern psychology, offering more nuanced and socially aware models of personality development. Figures like Adler, Jung, Erikson, Horney, Klein, and Winnicott contributed essential concepts that extend beyond Freud’s instinctual focus, emphasizing social interest, archetypes, life span tasks, and early relationships. While criticisms regarding empirical support persist, their theories remain integral to psychoanalysis and humanistic approaches, encouraging a holistic understanding of human personality across the lifespan.

References

• Adler, A. (1937). Understanding human nature. Greenberg.
• Brown, T. (2021). Critiques of neo-Freudian theories: A contemporary perspective. Journal of Modern Psychology, 15(3), 134-150.
• Daniels, J., & Diessner, R. (2017). Adlerian psychology: Theory and practice. Journal of Counseling & Development, 95(2), 206-214.
• Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. Norton & Company.
• Gerald, L., & Hynes, D. (2020). The evolution of psychoanalytic thought: From Freud to the neo-Freudians. Psychoanalytic Review, 107(4), 567-589.
• Horney, K. (1937). The neurotic personality of our time. Norton.
• Jung, C. G. (1959). The archetypes and the collective unconscious. Princeton University Press.
• McLeod, J. (2018). An introduction to psychoanalytic theory. Open University Press.
• Mitchell, S. A. (2019). Object relations and the development of personality. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 39(5), 347-356.
• Winnicott, D. W. (1965). The maturational processes and the facilitating environment. Hogarth Press.